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Unlikely
Kinds of Unlikely Selected AbstractsAFRICA,FRANCE: Judgements Unlikely to Harm InterestsAFRICA RESEARCH BULLETIN: ECONOMIC, FINANCIAL AND TECHNICAL SERIES, Issue 10 2009Article first published online: 27 NOV 200 No abstract is available for this article. [source] Refactoring service-based systems: how to avoid trusting a workflow serviceCONCURRENCY AND COMPUTATION: PRACTICE & EXPERIENCE, Issue 10 2006Howard Chivers Abstract Grid systems span multiple organizations, so their workflow processes have security requirements, such as restricting access to data or ensuring that process constraints are observed. These requirements are often managed by the workflow component, because of the close association between this sub-system and the processes it enacts. However, high-quality security mechanisms and complex functionality are difficult to combine, so designers and users of workflow systems are faced with a tradeoff between security and functionality, which is unlikely to provide confidence in the security implementation. This paper resolves that tension by showing that process security can be enforced outside the workflow component. Separating security and process functionality in this way improves the quality of security protection, because it is implemented by standard system mechanisms; it also allows the workflow component to be deployed as a standard service, rather than a privileged system component. To make this change of design philosophy accessible outside the security community it is documented as a collection of refactorings, which include problem templates that identify suspect design practice, and target patterns that provide solutions. Worked examples show that these patterns can be used in practice to implement practical applications, with both traditional workflow security concerns, and Grid requirements. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Congenital malformations in infants whose mothers reported the use of folic acid in early pregnancy in Sweden.CONGENITAL ANOMALIES, Issue 4 2007A prospective population study ABSTRACT The use of folic acid prior to conception is generally recommended for the prevention of birth defects, notably neural tube defects. In a previous study from Sweden, based on interviews of women in early pregnancy, no such effect was found on the general malformation rate, but data for neural tube defects were scarce. Using data from the Swedish Medical Birth Register for the years 1995,2004, 20 891 women were identified who reported the use of folic acid in early pregnancy, but not of anticonvulsants. These women were compared to all other women who gave birth during the study period. Malformations in the infants born were identified from multiple sources. No reduction in the general malformation rate was seen among infants born to women who reported the use of folic acid (OR = 1.09, 95% CI 1.02,1.17) and no effect of neural tube defect rate was seen (RR = 1.35, 95% CI 0.82,2.22), based on 16 infants with neural tube defect whose mother reported the use of folic acid. No effect was seen on the rates of other malformations except for cardiac defects, where a statistically significant increased risk (notably for severe defects) was found (OR = 1.19, 95% CI 1.05,1.35). The effect of various deficiencies in data collection is discussed, but is unlikely to explain the lack of protective effect noticed. So far, it has not been possible to demonstrate a beneficial effect of folic acid supplementation on malformation risk in Sweden. A more complete ascertainment and detailed timing and dosage of folic acid use in a prospective study is recommended. [source] Extent of Nontimber Resource Extraction in Tropical Forests: Accessibility to Game Vertebrates by Hunters in the Amazon BasinCONSERVATION BIOLOGY, Issue 2 2003Carlos A. Peres We conducted a basin-wide geographic information system analysis of the nonmotorized accessibility of Amazonian NTFP extraction and estimated the proportion of the Amazon drainage basin within Brazil ( 3.74 million km 2 ) that can be accessed on foot from the nearest navigable river or functional road. We use a long-term series of standardized line-transect vertebrate censuses conducted throughout the region to illustrate the effects of physical accessibility on wildlife densities in terms of hunting pressure as a function of distance from the nearest point of access. Population abundance in large-bodied, prime-target species preferred by game hunters tended to increase at greater distances from the access matrix, whereas small-bodied species ignored by hunters usually showed the reverse trend. In addition, we estimated the proportion of presumably inviolate core areas within nature, extractive, and indigenous reserves of Brazilian Amazonia that are prohibitively remote and unlikely to be overhunted; for instance, only 1.16% of the basin-wide area is strictly protected on paper and is reasonably safe from extractive activities targeted to game vertebrates and other valuable NTFPs. Finally, we discuss the concept of truly undisturbed wildlands in the last major tropical forest regions by distinguishing potentially overharvested areas from those that remain largely or entirely pristine and that maintain viable populations of a full complement of harvest-sensitive species. Resumen: Las actividades de extracción enfocadas en un amplio rango de productos forestales no maderables ( NTFPs ) son omnipresentes en los bosques tropicales. Sin embargo, la extensión de bosques estructuralmente intactos en una determinada región afectada por esta forma de perturbación críptica ha sido escasamente documentada. Realizamos un análisis GIS del acceso no motorizado para la extracción NTFP en el Amazonas y estimamos la proporción de la desembocadura de la cuenca amazónica ( ,3.74 millones de km2 ) a la cual se puede acceder a pie a partir del río navegable o la carretera funcional más cercana. Utilizamos series de censos de vertebrados a largo plazo empleando transectos en línea estandarizados a lo largo de la región para ejemplificar los efectos del acceso físico sobre las densidades de vida silvestre en términos de presión de caza como función de la distancia al punto de acceso más cercano. La abundancia poblacional de especies de cuerpo grande que son blancos preferidos por los cazadores tendió a crecer a mayores distancias de la matriz de acceso, mientras que las especies de cuerpo pequeño ignoradas por los cazadores generalmente muestran la tendencia inversa. Además, estimamos la proporción de áreas medulares presuntamente inviolables dentro de las reservas naturales, extractivas e indígenas del Amazonas brasileño que son prohibitivamente remotas y poco probables de ser sobreexplotadas: por ejemplo, solo el 1.16% del área de la cuenca estrictamente proyectada en papel está razonablemente a salvo de las actividades extractivas de los vertebrados de caza y otras NTFPs valiosas. Finalmente, discutimos el concepto de tierras silvestres verdaderamente no perturbadas en las grandes regiones de bosque tropical restantes diferenciando las áreas potencialmente sobreexplotadas de aquellas que son en su mayor parte o totalmente prístinas y que mantienen poblaciones viables de un complemento total de especies sensibles a la cosecha. [source] Synergistic Effects of Subsistence Hunting and Habitat Fragmentation on Amazonian Forest VertebratesCONSERVATION BIOLOGY, Issue 6 2001Carlos A. Peres These effects are likely to be considerably aggravated by forest fragmentation because fragments are more accessible to hunters, allow no (or very low rates of ,) recolonization from nonharvested source populations, and may provide a lower-quality resource base for the frugivore-granivore vertebrate fauna. I examined the likelihood of midsized to large-bodied bird and mammal populations persisting in Amazonian forest fragments of variable sizes whenever they continue to be harvested by subsistence hunters in the aftermath of isolation. I used data from a comprehensive compilation of game-harvest studies throughout Neotropical forests to estimate the degree to which different species and populations have been overharvested and then calculated the range of minimum forest areas required to maintain a sustainable harvest. The size distribution of 5564 Amazonian forest fragments,estimated from Landsat images of six regions of southern and eastern Brazilian Amazonia,clearly shows that these are predominantly small and rarely exceed 10 ha, suggesting that persistent overhunting is likely to drive most midsized to large vertebrate populations to local extinction in fragmented forest landscapes. Although experimental studies on this negative synergism remain largely unavailable, the prospect that increasingly fragmented Neotropical forest regions can retain their full assemblages of avian and mammalian species is unlikely. Resumen: La cacería de subsistencia tiene efectos negativos profundos sobre la diversidad de especies, la biomasa y estructura de las comunidades de vertebrados en bosques de la Amazonía que de otra forma están poco perturbadas. Estos efectos se agravan considerablemente por la fragmentación del bosque porque los fragmentos son más accesibles a los cazadores, no permiten la recolonización por poblaciones no cazadas o disminuyen las tasas de recolonizacíon y pueden proporcionar una base de recursos de menor calidad para la fauna de vertebrados frugívoro-granívoros. Examiné la posibilidad de persistencia de poblaciones de aves y mamíferos medianos a grandes en fragmentos de bosque de tamaño variable si continúan sujetos a la cacería de subsistencia como una consecuencia del aislamiento. Utilicé datos de una compilación extensiva de estudios de cacería en bosques neotropicales para estimar el grado en que diferentes especies y poblaciones han sido sobre explotadas y calculé el área de bosque minima requerida para mantener una cosecha sostensible. La distribucíon de tamaños de 5564 fragmentos de bosque amazónica, estimado a partir de imágues de Landsat de seis regiones del sur y del esté de la Amazonía brasileña indica claramente que estos fragmentós son principalmente pegueños y que rara vez exceden las lolta, lo que sugiere que la sobre cacería persistente probablemente lleve a la extincíon local de poblaciones de vertebrados de tamaño mediano a grande en paisajes boscosos fragmentados. Aunque estudios experimentales de este sinergismo negativo no están disponibles, la perspectiva de que las regiones neotropicales cada vez más fragmentadas, puedan retener las comunidades completas de aves y mamíferos poco es probable. [source] Climate Variability in Regions of Amphibian DeclinesCONSERVATION BIOLOGY, Issue 4 2001Michael A. Alexander The reanalysis system merges observations from airplanes, land stations, satellites, ships, and weather balloons with output from a weather-forecast model to create global fields of atmospheric variables. Station data consisted of temperature and precipitation measured with thermometers and rain gauges at fixed locations. Temperatures were near normal in Colorado when the amphibian declines occurred in the 1970s, whereas in Central America temperatures were warmer than normal, especially during the dry season. The station data from Puerto Rico and Australia indicated that temperatures were above normal during the period of amphibian declines, but reanalysis did not show such a clear temperature signal. Although declines occurred while the temperature and precipitation anomalies in some of the regions were large and of extended duration, the anomalies were not beyond the range of normal variability. Thus, unusual climate, as measured by regional estimates of temperature and precipitation, is unlikely to be the direct cause of amphibian declines, but it may have indirectly contributed to them. Previous researchers have noted that the declines appear to have propagated from northwest to southeast from Costa Rica to Panama and from southeast to northwest in Queensland, Australia. Wind has the potential to transport pathogens that cause amphibian mortality. The mean direction of the near-surface winds tended to parallel the path of amphibian declines from July,October in Central America and from May,July in Australia. The wind direction was highly variable, however, and the propagation rate of amphibian declines was much slower than the mean wind speed. In addition, the most likely pathogen is a chytrid fungus that does not produce desiccation-resistant spores. Thus, if wind is involved in the propagation of amphibian declines, it is through a complex set of processes. Resumen: Exploramos la relación entre las declinaciones de anfibios y las variaciones climáticas en Colorado, E.U.A., Puerto Rico, Costa Rica/Panamá y Queensland, Australia por medio de dos fuentes de información: resultados "sistema de reanálisis" del Centro Nacional de Predicción Ambiental y datos de estaciones área-promedio. El sistema de reanálisis combina observaciones de aeroplanos, estaciones terrestres, satélites, barcos y globos climatológicos, con resultados de un modelo de predicción climatológica para crear campos globales de variables atmosféricas. Los datos de estaciones fueron de temperatura y precipitación medidos con termómetros y pluviómetros en localidades fijas. Las temperaturas fueron casi normales en Colorado cuando ocurrieron las declinaciones en la década de 1970, mientras que las temperaturas en Centro América fueron mayores a lo normal, especialmente durante la época de sequía. Los datos de estaciones en Puerto Rico y Australia indicaron que la temperatura fue mayor a la normal durante el período de declinación de anfibios, pero un nuevo análisis no mostró una señal de temperatura tan clara. Aunque las declinaciones ocurrieron mientras las anomalías de temperatura y precipitación fueron grandes y de duración prolongada en algunas de las regiones, las anomalías no rebasaron el rango de variabilidad normal. Por lo tanto, es poco probable que el clima inusual, medido por estimaciones regionales de temperatura y precipitación, sea la causa directa de las declinaciones de anfibios, pero pudo haber contribuido indirectamente a ellas. Investigaciones previas notan que las declinaciones parecen haberse propagado de noroeste a sureste de Costa Rica a Panamá y de sureste a noreste en Queensland, Australia. El viento tiene el potencial de transportar patógenos que causan mortalidad de anfibios. La dirección promedio de los vientos superficiales tendió a ser paralela al camino de las declinaciones de anfibios de julio a octubre en Centro América y de mayo a julio en Australia. Sin embargo, la dirección del viento fue altamente variable y la tasa de propagación de declinaciones de anfibios fue mucho más lenta que la velocidad promedio del viento. Adicionalmente, el patógeno más probable es un hongo quítrido que no produce esporas resistentes a la desecación. Por tanto, si el viento está implicado en la propagación de declinaciones de anfibios, lo es por medio de un complejo conjunto de procesos. [source] Response Time of Wetland Biodiversity to Road Construction on Adjacent LandsCONSERVATION BIOLOGY, Issue 1 2000C. Scot T Findlay Species loss is unlikely to occur immediately, however. Rather, populations of susceptible species are expected to decline gradually after road construction, with local extinction occurring sometime later. We document lags in wetland biodiversity loss in response to road construction by fitting regression models that express species richness of different taxa ( birds, mammals, plants, and herptiles) as a function of both current and historical road densities on adjacent lands. The proportion of variation in herptile and bird richness explained by road densities increased significantly when past densities were substituted for more current densities in multiple regression models. Moreover, for vascular plants, birds, and herptiles, there were significant negative effects of historical road densities when the most current densities were controlled statistically. Our results provide evidence that the full effects of road construction on wetland biodiversity may be undetectable in some taxa for decades. Such lags in response to changes in anthropogenic stress have important implications for land-use planning and environmental impact assessment. Resumen: La construcción de caminos puede resultar en significativas pérdidas de biodiversidad tanto a escala local como regional debido a la restricción de movimiento entre poblaciones, incremento de la mortalidad, fragmentación de hábitat y efectos de borde, invasión de especies exóticas o mayor acceso de humanos a hábitats silvestres, con lo cual se espera que se incrementen las tasas locales de extinción o disminuyan las tasas locales de recolonización. Sin embargo, es improbable que la pérdida de especies ocurra inmediatamente. Más bien, se espera que las poblaciones de especies susceptibles declinen gradualmente después de la construcción del camino, extinguiéndose localmente poco tiempo después. Documentamos la pérdida de biodiversidad en humedales como respuesta a la construcción de caminos ajustando modelos de regresión que expresan la riqueza de especies de diferentes taxa (aves, mamíferos, plantas, reptiles y anfibios) como una función de las densidades actual e histórica de los caminos en tierras adyacentes. La proporción de variación en anfibios, reptiles y aves incrementó significativamente cuando las densidades históricas fueron sustituidas por densidades actuales en los modelos de regresión múltiple. Más aun, hubo efectos negativos significativos de las densidades de caminos históricas para plantas vasculares, aves, anfibios y reptiles cuando las densidades actuales fueron estadísticamente controladas. Nuestros resultados proporcionan evidencia de que los efectos de la construcción de caminos sobre la biodiversidad de humedales pueden se indetectables para algunos taxa por décadas. Tales rezagos en la respuesta a cambios en el estrés antropogénico tienen implicaciones importantes en la planificación de uso del suelo y la evaluación de impacto ambiental. [source] Formaldehyde-releasers: relationship to formaldehyde contact allergy.CONTACT DERMATITIS, Issue 1 2010Part 2. This is the second part of a review article on formaldehyde-releasers used as durable press chemical finishes (DPCF) in textiles. The early finishes contained large amounts of free formaldehyde, which led to many cases of allergic contact dermatitis to clothes in the 1950s and 1960s. Currently, most finishes are based on modified dimethylol dihydroxyethyleneurea, which releases less formaldehyde. Nevertheless, recent studies in the United States and Israel have identified patients reacting to DPCF, considered to have allergic contact reactions to clothes, either from formaldehyde released by the DPCF therein or from the DPCF per se (in patients negative to formaldehyde). However, all studies had some weaknesses in design or interpretation and in not a single case has the clinical relevance been proven. The amount of free formaldehyde in most garments will likely be below the threshold for the elicitation of dermatitis for all but the most sensitive patients. The amount of free cyclized urea DPCF in clothes is unlikely to be high enough to cause sensitization. Patch test reactions to formaldehyde-releasing DPCF will in most cases represent a reaction to formaldehyde released from the test material. [source] Independence Threats, Litigation Risk, and the Auditor's Decision Process,CONTEMPORARY ACCOUNTING RESEARCH, Issue 4 2005Allen D. Blay Abstract This study examines the effect of independence threats and litigation risk on auditors' evaluation of information and subsequent reporting choices. Using a Web-based experiment, I tracked auditors' information gathering and evaluation leading to a going-concern reporting decision. Specifically, 48 audit managers assessed client survival likelihood, gathered additional information, and suggested audit report choices. I found that auditors facing high independence threats (fear of losing the client) evaluated information as more indicative of a surviving client and were more likely to suggest an unmodified audit report, consistent with client preferences. In contrast, auditors facing high litigation risk evaluated information as more indicative of a failing client and were more likely to suggest a modified audit report. In addition, the association between risk and report choice was fully mediated by final information evaluation. This suggests that it is unlikely that different reporting choices resulted from a conscious choice bias, but rather that motivated reasoning during evidence evaluation plays a key role in the effect of risk in auditor decision making. [source] The effect of strength training on the force of twitches evoked by corticospinal stimulation in humansACTA PHYSIOLOGICA, Issue 2 2009T. J. Carroll Abstract Aim:, Although there is considerable evidence that strength training causes adaptations in the central nervous system, many details remain unclear. Here we studied neuromuscular responses to strength training of the wrist by recording electromyographic and twitch responses to transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and cervicomedullary stimulation of the corticospinal tract. Methods:, Seventeen participants performed 4 weeks (12 sessions) of strength training for the radial deviator (RD) muscles of the wrist (n = 8) or control training without external load (n = 9). TMS recruitment curves were constructed from stimuli at five to eight intensities ranging between 15% below resting motor threshold and maximal stimulator output, both at rest and during isometric wrist extension (EXT) and RD at 10% and 50% of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC). Responses to weak TMS and cervicomedullary stimulation (set to produce a response of 10% maximal M wave amplitude during 10% MVC EXT contraction) were also compared at contraction strengths ranging from 10% to 75% MVC. Results:, Isometric strength increased following strength training (10.7% for the RD MVC, 8.8% for the EXT MVC), but not control training. Strength training also significantly increased the amplitude of TMS- and cervicomedullary-evoked twitches during low-force contractions. Increases in the force-generating capacity of the wrist extensor muscles are unlikely to account for this finding because training did not affect the amplitude of twitches elicited by supra-maximal nerve stimulation. Conclusion:, The data suggest that strength training induces adaptations that increase the net gain of corticospinal-motor neuronal projections to the trained muscles. [source] An enhanced level of motor cortical excitability during the control of human standingACTA PHYSIOLOGICA, Issue 3 2009C. D. Tokuno Abstract Aim:, The study examined the role of the motor cortex in the control of human standing. Methods:, Subjects (n = 15) stood quietly with or without body support. The supported standing condition enabled subjects to stand with a reduced amount of postural sway. Peripheral electrical stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) or transcranial electrical stimulation (TES) was applied to elicit a soleus (SOL) H-reflex, or motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) in the SOL and the tibialis anterior (TA). Trials were grouped based on the standing condition (i.e. supported vs. normal) as well as sway direction (i.e. forward and backward) while subjects were standing normally. Results:, During normal when compared to supported standing, the SOL H-reflex was depressed (,11 ± 4%), while the TMS-evoked MEPs from the SOL and TA were facilitated (35 ± 11% for the SOL, 51 ± 15% for the TA). TES-evoked SOL and TA MEPs were, however, not different between the normal and supported standing conditions. The data based on sway direction indicated that the SOL H-reflex, as well as the SOL TMS- and TES-evoked MEPs were all greater during forward when compared to backward sway. In contrast, the TMS- and TES-evoked MEPs from the TA were smaller when swaying forward as compared to backward. Conclusions:, The results indicated the presence of an enhanced cortical excitability because of the need to control for postural sway during normal standing. The increased cortical excitability was, however, unlikely to be involved in an on-going control of postural sway, suggesting that postural sway is controlled at the spinal and/or subcortical levels. [source] Walls of secrecy and silenceCRIMINOLOGY AND PUBLIC POLICY, Issue 3 2010The Madoff case, cartels in the construction industry Research Summary Most analysts of the causes of the contemporary credit crunch have concluded that the supervising agencies failed in their duties. The same is true for studies of several major fraud scandals, including the Madoff affair and the Dutch construction fraud. The remedy seems immediately obvious: more and better regulation and supervision. However, this line of reasoning seems somewhat simplistic by ignoring the question of how illegal activities can remain hidden for many years from supervising agencies, victims, and bystanders. This research article argues that the problem also lies in the successful concealment of illegal activities by the perpetrators and in the presence of silence in their social environment. Policy Implications The cases analyzed in this article suggest that financial misconduct also could be controlled by breaking the conspiracies of silence. The strengthening of supervision is unlikely to be effective without simultaneous efforts to encourage people to speak out and to give them incentives to want to know and to tell the truth. [source] UNITED STATES V. BOOKER AS A NATURAL EXPERIMENT: USING EMPIRICAL RESEARCH TO INFORM THE FEDERAL SENTENCING POLICY DEBATE,CRIMINOLOGY AND PUBLIC POLICY, Issue 3 2007PAUL J. HOFER Research Summary: In United States v. Booker, the U.S. Supreme Court held that the federal sentencing guidelines must be considered advisory, rather than mandatory, if they are to remain constitutional under the Sixth Amendment. Since the decision, the U.S. Sentencing Commission has provided policy makers with accurate and current data on changes and continuity in federal sentencing practices. Unlike previous changes in legal doctrine, Booker immediately increased the rates of upward and downward departures from the guideline range. Government-sponsored downward departures remain the leading category of outside,the-range sentences. The rate of within-range sentences, although lower than in the period immediately preceding Booker, remains near rates observed earlier in the guidelines era. Despite the increase in departures, average sentence lengths for the overall caseload remain stable, because of offsetting increases in the seriousness of the crimes being sentenced and in the severity of penalties for those crimes. Analyses of the reasons that judges reported for downward departures suggest that treatment of criminal history and offender characteristics are the two leading areas of dissatisfaction with the guidelines. Policy Implications: Assessment of changes in sentencing practices following Booker by different observers depends partly on competing institutional perspectives and on different degrees of trust in the judgment of judges, prosecutors, the Sentencing Commission, and Congress. No agreement on whether Booker has bettered or worsened the system can be achieved until agreement exists on priorities among the purposes of sentencing and the goals of sentencing reform. Both this lack of agreement and an absence of needed data make consensus on Booker's effects on important sentencing goals, such as reduction of unwarranted disparity, unlikely in the near future. Similarly, lack of baseline data before Booker on the effectiveness of federal sentencing at crime control makes before-after comparisons impossible. Despite these limitations, research provides a sounder framework for policy making than do anecdotes or speculation and sets valuable empirical parameters for the federal sentencing policy debate. [source] Control of the triceps surae during the postural sway of quiet standingACTA PHYSIOLOGICA, Issue 3 2007C. D. Tokuno Abstract Aim:, The present study investigated how the triceps surae are controlled at the spinal level during the naturally occurring postural sway of quiet standing. Methods:, Subjects stood on a force platform as electrical stimuli were applied to the posterior tibial nerve when the center of pressure (COP) was either 1.6 standard deviations anterior (COPant) or posterior (COPpost) to the mean baseline COP signal. Peak-to-peak amplitudes of the H-reflex and M-wave from the soleus (SOL) and medial gastrocnemius (MG) muscles were recorded to assess the efficacy of the Ia pathway. Results:, A significant increase in the Hmax : Mmax ratio for both the SOL (12 ± 6%) and MG (23 ± 6%) was observed during the COPant as compared to the COPpost condition. The source of the modulation between COP conditions cannot be determined from this study. However, the observed changes in the synaptic efficacy of the Ia pathway are unlikely to be simply a result of an altered level of background electromyographic activity in the triceps surae. This was indicated by the lack of differences observed in the Hmax : Mmax ratio when subjects stood without postural sway (via the use of a tilt table) at two levels of background activity. Conclusions:, It is suggested that the phase-dependent modulation of the triceps surae H-reflexes during the postural sway of quiet standing functions to maintain upright stance and may explain the results from previous studies, which, until now, had not taken the influence of postural sway on the H-reflex into consideration. [source] Cognitive specificity of anxiety disorders: a review of selected key constructsDEPRESSION AND ANXIETY, Issue 2 2006F.R.A.N.Z.C.P., Ph.D., Vladan Starcevic M.D. Abstract Cognitive models of anxiety disorders propose that certain cognitive constructs, that is, underlying beliefs and cognitive processes, may be specific for particular disorders. In this article, we review the specificity of four representative cognitive constructs,anxiety sensitivity, pathological worry, intolerance of uncertainty, and thought,action fusion,for particular disorders. Conceptual overlap, inconsistent definitions, and insufficient consideration of the components of these constructs are limitations of the existing literature. We suggest that the constructs are unlikely to be pathognomonic for any given disorder or to occur in isolation. Rather, the association of each cognitive construct is evident, to varying degrees, with different disorders. Relative to other disorders, anxiety sensitivity is to a certain extent specific for panic disorder, as are pathological worry for generalized anxiety disorder, intolerance of uncertainty for generalized anxiety disorder and obsessive,compulsive disorder, and thought,action fusion for obsessive,compulsive disorder. We discuss the implications of these findings for diagnostic systems and treatment, and suggest areas for further research. Depression and Anxiety 23:51,61, 2006. © 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] Radiographic and Computed Tomographic Studies of Calcium Hydroxylapatite for Treatment of HIV,Associated Facial Lipoatrophy and Correction of Nasolabial FoldsDERMATOLOGIC SURGERY, Issue 2008ALASTAIR CARRUTHERS MD OBJECTIVES This study sought to assess the radiographic appearance produced by calcium hydroxylapatite soft tissue filler (CaHA; Radiesse, BioForm Medical Inc.) following augmentation to correct the nasolabial folds or facial wasting associated with human immunodeficiency virus lipoatrophy. METHODS A total of 58 patients, with either lipoatrophy or pronounced nasolabial folds, were treated with CaHA. Radiographic (X-ray) and computed tomographic (CT) imaging studies were conducted pre- and posttreatment in most patients; the images were sent to an independent laboratory to be analyzed by two evaluators who were board-certified radiologists and blinded to study purpose, product, and patient condition. RESULTS While results for X-ray evaluation showed inconsistencies in visualization of CaHA, CT scans showed consistent visualization in nearly all cases in patients who were imaged immediately after treatment. In addition, the results indicated no obscuration of underlying structures by CaHA and no evidence of CaHA migration. CONCLUSIONS Earlier clinical trials established CaHA as a safe and effective soft tissue filler. This CaHA study shows no overt radiographic safety concerns. CaHA is unlikely to be confused with conventional abnormal and adverse radiographic findings. The product is not always visible on X-ray. Although usually visible on CT scans, its appearance is distinct from surrounding bony structures and does not interfere with normal analysis. In addition, the product does not obscure underlying structures on CT scans. [source] Unequal Knowledges in Jharkhand, India: De-Romanticizing Women's Agroecological ExpertiseDEVELOPMENT AND CHANGE, Issue 5 2000Sarah Jewitt Taking the Jharkhand region of India as a case study, this article uses empirical data to intervene in ,women, environment and development' and ecofeminist debates regarding women's environmental knowledge. The article first outlines the adoption of gender/environmental issues into development planning and considers the dangers of overestimating women's agroecological knowledges and assuming that they can easily participate in development projects. It then highlights the local complexities of environmental knowledge possession and control with reference to gender and other variations in agricultural participation, decision-making and knowledge transfers between villagers' natal and marital places. Particular emphasis is placed on the economic, socio-cultural and ,actor' related factors that supplement gender as an influence on task allocation, decision-making, knowledge distribution and knowledge articulation. The article concludes that given the socio-cultural constraints women face in accumulating and vocalizing environmental knowledge, simplistic participatory approaches are unlikely to empower them. Instead, more flexible, site-specific development initiatives (coupled with wider structural change) are required if opportunities are to be created for women to develop and use their agroecological knowledges. [source] Agricultural Productivity Growth and Poverty AlleviationDEVELOPMENT POLICY REVIEW, Issue 4 2001Xavier Irz How important is agricultural growth to poverty reduction? This article first sets out the theoretical reasons for expecting agricultural growth to reduce poverty. Several plausible and strong arguments apply - including the creation of jobs on the land, linkages from farming to the rest of the rural economy, and a decline in the real cost of food for the whole economy - but the degree of impact is in all cases qualified by particular circumstances. Hence, the article deploys a cross-country estimation of the links between agricultural yield per unit area and measures of poverty. This produces strong confirmation of the hypothesised linkages. It is unlikely that there are many other development interventions capable of reducing the numbers in poverty so effectively. [source] From Urban to Rural: Lessons for Microfinance from ArgentinaDEVELOPMENT POLICY REVIEW, Issue 3 2001Mark Schreiner The recent success of microfinance for the urban self-employed contrasts with decades of failure on the part of public development banks for small farmers. This article describes the ways in which rural microfinance organisations have tried to adapt the lessons of urban microfinance to manage the risks and control the costs of the supply of financial services in rural areas. It then asks whether the lessons of urban microfinance are likely to apply in the poorest rural areas of Argentina. The article concludes that microfinance is unlikely to improve access to small loans and small deposits for many of the rural poor in Argentina; distances are too great, farmers too specialised, and wages too high. Improved access depends not on targeting loans by government decree but on strengthening institutions that support financial markets. [source] Absence of pestivirus antigen in brains with white matter damageDEVELOPMENTAL MEDICINE & CHILD NEUROLOGY, Issue 4 2006Olaf Dammann We previously suggested that antenatal pestivirus infection might play a role in the pathogenesis of perinatal brain white matter damage (WMD) in preterm infants. We have now examined 22 brains from stillborns and deceased newborns (both preterm and term) for the presence of bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV) antigen. The brains of five females and five males with WMD (median gestational age 36.5wks), and nine female and three male controls (median gestational age 36.5wks) were used in the study. No BVDV antigen was detected in any of the 22 brains. We conclude that brain infection with BVDV is unlikely to play a role in WMD pathogenesis among preterm or term newborns. Further research is needed to test the hypothesis that intrauterine exposure to pestivirus antigen elicits a fetal inflammatory response which then contributes to WMD. [source] ,Seeing voices': fused visual/auditory verbal hallucinations reported by three persons with schizophrenia-spectrum disorderACTA PSYCHIATRICA SCANDINAVICA, Issue 4 2006R. E. Hoffman Objective:, The neurocognitive basis of verbal/auditory hallucinations remains uncertain. A leading hypothesis is that these hallucinations correspond to ordinary inner speech mislabeled as non-self. However, some studies suggest pathogenic activation of receptive language neurocircuitry as the cause. A form of visualized verbal hallucinations not previously reported in the literature is described that may shed light on this controversy. Method:, Review of three cases. Results:, Two patients described visual hallucinations of speech-like lip and mouth movements fused with simultaneous auditory verbal hallucinations superimposed on perceptions of faces of actual persons in their immediate environment. A third patient described similar experiences incorporated into visual hallucinations of human figures who also exhibited finger and hand movements corresponding to American Sign Language. Conclusion:, These fused, multimodal verbal hallucinations seem unlikely to be due to inner speech mislabeled as non-self, and instead suggest top-down re-shaping of activation in visual processing brain centers by pathogenically active receptive language neurocircuitry. [source] Comparison of the effects of HGF, BDNF, CT-1, CNTF, and the branchial arches on the growth of embryonic cranial motor neuronsDEVELOPMENTAL NEUROBIOLOGY, Issue 2 2002Arifa Naeem Abstract In the developing embryo, axon growth and guidance depend on cues that include diffusible molecules. We have shown previously that the branchial arches and hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) are growth-promoting and chemoattractant for young embryonic cranial motor axons. HGF is produced in the branchial arches of the embryo, but a number of lines of evidence suggest that HGF is unlikely to be the only factor involved in the growth and guidance of these axons. Here we investigate whether other neurotrophic factors could be involved in the growth of young cranial motor neurons in explant cultures. We find that brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) and cardiotrophin-1 (CT-1) all promote the outgrowth of embryonic cranial motor neurons, while glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) fail to affect outgrowth. We next examined whether HGF and the branchial arches had similar effects on motor neuron subpopulations at different axial levels. Our results show that HGF acts as a generalized rather than a specific neurotrophic factor and guidance cue for cranial motor neurons. Although the branchial arches also had general growth-promoting effects on all motor neuron subpopulations, they chemoattracted different axial levels differentially, with motor neurons from the caudal hindbrain showing the most striking response. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Neurobiol 51: 101,114, 2002 [source] Genetic variants of insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1) in syndromes of severe insulin resistance.DIABETIC MEDICINE, Issue 10 2002Functional analysis of Ala513Pro, Gly1158Glu IRS- Abstract Aims To define further the role of IRS-1 mutations in human syndromes of severe insulin resistance. Methods The IRS-1 gene was scanned for mutations in 83 unrelated affected subjects and 47 unaffected individuals using fluorescent single-strand conformation polymorphism (fSSCP) analysis. A novel heterozygous mutation, Gly1158Glu, was found in one affected subject. Four and two subjects were heterozygous for the previously reported variants Gly972Arg and Ala513Pro, respectively. The previously identified variant Gly819Arg was found in one affected and one unaffected subject. While Gly972Arg has been described to alter the signalling properties of IRS-1, no functional studies of Ala513Pro or Gly1158Glu have been reported. Results Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells stably over-expressing the insulin receptor were transiently transfected with vectors expressing either wild-type, Glu1158 or Pro513 IRS-1. A modest increase in insulin-stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of Glu1158 IRS-1 was observed. However, this did not result in any significant change in the association of Grb2 or the p85, subunit of PI3-kinase or of PI3-kinase activity. In parallel studies, the Pro513 IRS-1 variant was indistinguishable from wild-type IRS-1. Conclusions While subtle effects of these variants cannot be excluded in this system, it is unlikely that these variants are responsible for the extreme insulin resistance seen in the subjects harbouring them. Although IRS proteins play a central role in insulin signalling, functionally significant mutations in the IRS-1 gene are a rare cause of human syndromes of severe insulin resistance. [source] Can We Derive the Principle of Compositionality (if We Deflate Understanding)?DIALECTICA, Issue 2 2009Antonio Rauti Paul Horwich has claimed that we can derive a certain form of the principle of compositionality from a deflationary account of what it is to understand a complex expression. If this were the case, we would realize a surprising theoretical economy, and if the derivation involved basic ideas from a use theory of meaning, we would have a novel argument for use theories of meaning. Horwich does not offer a detailed derivation. In this paper I reconstruct a possible derivation and show that it begs the question. I then extend my discussion to explain why it is unlikely that alternative arguments can fare better. [source] A shortening of the manus precedes the attenuation of other wing-bone elements in the evolution of flightlessness in birdsACTA ZOOLOGICA, Issue 1 2010R. L. Nudds Abstract Nudds, R. L. and Slove Davidson, J. 2010. A shortening of the manus precedes the attenuation of other wing-bone elements in the evolution of flightlessness in birds. ,Acta Zoologica (Stockholm) 91: 115,122 This is the first study to present evidence for a general pattern of wing-bone attenuation during the early stages of the evolution of flightlessness. A comparative analysis using phylogenetic independent contrasts showed that in families that contain both flighted (volant) and flightless species, the volant species have shorter wings and total-arm (humerus + ulna + manus) lengths relative to their body masses than the species within their wholly volant sister families. A shortening of the manus may typify the early stages of the evolution of flightlessness, with the humerus and ulna attenuating later, perhaps because of their role in maintaining the position of the aerodynamically important alula. A shorter wing relative to body mass was not the result of the inverse (i.e. heavier body mass relative to wing length) because mean body masses of volant members of flightless families were similar to or lower than those of their wholly volant sister families. Despite finding a common trend in the wing morphologies of volant members of flightless families, it seems unlikely that a general model of selection pressures driving the evolution of flightlessness exists. At the very least, a dichotomy between those birds that have lost the ability to fly in order to gain the ability to swim and terrestrial forms, may persist. [source] Fundal gastritis as a potential cause of reflux oesophagitisDISEASES OF THE ESOPHAGUS, Issue 1 2000M. Newton The transient lower oesophageal sphincter relaxations which allow reflux may be due to altered afferent pathways from the fundus. We aimed to determine whether fundal inflammation is the underlying cause. Two endoscopic biopsies were taken from each of the gastric antrum and fundus in 25 asymptomatic controls with a normal endoscopy (median age 54 range 13,83 years), and 33 patients with erosive oesophagitis (median age 52, 11,78 years). No patient had taken acid suppression therapy or antibiotics for at least 1 month. Sections were stained with haematoxylin and eosin and Giemsa stain and examined in a blinded fashion by one pathologist for the presence of gastritis (Sydney classification) and Helicobacter pylori. Chronic gastritis was common in both groups, but was usually mild. In Helicobacter pylori -negative subjects, there was significantly less chronic gastritis in the antrum and the fundus in oesophagitis patients than in controls (p < 0.05). When present, gastric atrophy was usually antral and mild in severity. There was no difference in the incidence of gastric atrophy in patients with oesophagitis compared with controls (24% compared with 40%; p > 0.05). Chronic gastritis is not more common in patients with oesophagitis, and is unlikely to play a part in the pathogenesis of this disease. [source] Distribution of myrmecochorous species over the landscape and their potential long-distance dispersal by emus and kangaroosDIVERSITY AND DISTRIBUTIONS, Issue 1 2008María Calviño-Cancela ABSTRACT Topographical heterogeneity can create a mosaic of substrate types leading to the formation of isolated plant populations. Seed dispersal then becomes crucial for the colonization of such suitable but remote substrate types. We surveyed the distribution of seven elaiosome-bearing species (myrmecochores) over 5 km2 of natural heathland in southwestern Australia. Ants are the standard means of dispersal of these species, which provide limited dispersal (usually of a few metres). Six species were associated with particular substrate types (dune or swale) and all occurred as discrete populations, on average 270,500 m apart, with closest dune edges 280 m apart. We evaluated the possible roles of emus and kangaroos as alternative agents of long-distance seed dispersal between substrate types. Their droppings contained viable seeds of three of the target species, as well as other myrmecochores, and were evenly distributed over the substrate types. While migration of these plant species between preferred substrate types seems unlikely when considering only their standard dispersal agents (ants), it is highly likely in the presence of emus (in particular) and kangaroos that act as non-standard dispersers. This may have important consequences for plant species conservation by increasing habitat connectivity and favouring regional persistence. [source] Evaluating reserves for species richness and representation in northern CaliforniaDIVERSITY AND DISTRIBUTIONS, Issue 4 2006Jeffrey R. Dunk ABSTRACT The Klamath-Siskiyou forests of northern California and southern Oregon are recognized as an area of globally outstanding biological distinctiveness. When evaluated at a national or global level, this region is often, necessarily, considered to be uniformly diverse. Due to large variation in biotic and abiotic variables throughout this region, however, it is unlikely that biological diversity is uniformly distributed. Furthermore, land management decisions nearly always occur at spatial scales smaller than this entire region. Therefore, we used field data from a random sampling design to map the distribution of local and regional richness of terrestrial molluscs and salamanders within northern California's portion of the Klamath-Siskiyou region. We also evaluated the protection afforded by reserves established for varying reasons (e.g. for inspiration and recreation for people vs. species conservation) to hotspots of species richness and species representation of these taxa. No existing reserves were created with these taxa in mind, yet it was assumed that reserves established largely around considerations for the northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) would afford adequate protection for many lesser-known species. Species of terrestrial molluscs and salamanders share two general features: (1) they have extremely low vagility, and (2) they are often associated with moist, cool microclimates. Existing reserves disproportionately included areas of hotspots of species richness for both taxa, when hotspots included the richest c. 25% of the area, whereas non-reserved lands contained greater than expected areas with lower species richness. However, when a more strict definition of hotspot was used (i.e. the richest c.10% of areas), local hotspots for both taxa were not disproportionately found in reserves. Reserves set aside largely for human aesthetics and recreation and those set aside for biodiversity both contributed to the protection of areas with high (greatest 25%) species richness. Existing biodiversity reserves represented 68% of mollusc species and 73% of salamander species, corresponding to the 99th and 93rd percentiles, respectively, of species representation achieved by simulating a random distribution of the same total area of reservation. Cumulatively, however, reserves set aside for inspiration and biodiversity represented 83% of mollusc species and 91% of salamander species. The existing reserves provide conservation value for terrestrial molluscs and salamanders. This reserve network, however, should not be considered optimal for either taxa. [source] Global use of alcohol, drugs and tobaccoDRUG AND ALCOHOL REVIEW, Issue 6 2006PETER ANDERSON Abstract Humans have always used drugs, probably as part of their evolutionary and nutritional heritage. However, this previous biological adaptation is unlikely to be so in the modern world, in which 2 billion adults (48% of the adult population) are current users of alcohol, 1.1 billion adults (29% of the adult population) are current smokers of cigarettes and 185 million adults (4.5% of the adult population) are current users of illicit drugs. The use of drugs is determined largely by market forces, with increases in affordability and availability increasing use. People with socio-economic deprivation, however measured, are at increased risk of harmful drug use, as are those with a disadvantaged family environment, and those who live in a community with higher levels of substance use. Substance use is on the increase in low-income countries which, in the coming decades, will bear a disproportionate burden of substance-related disability and premature death. [source] LBY135, a novel anti-DR5 agonistic antibody induces tumor cell,specific cytotoxic activity in human colon tumor cell lines and xenografts,DRUG DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH, Issue 2 2008Jing Li Abstract TRAIL (TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand) induces apoptosis on binding to DR4 and DR5 receptors on the surface of tumor cells. These receptors are of particular interest in the development of cancer therapeutics as they preferentially mediate tumor cell apoptosis. We have generated a chimeric anti-DR5 agonistic antibody, LBY135, from its murine parental antibody, LCR211, identified using hybridoma technology. Both LCR211 and LBY135 specifically bind to DR5 with nanomolar affinity, mimic TRAIL to induce cell death in tumor cells, and have little effect on non-transformed cells in vitro. The anti-DR5 antibody reduced viability in 45% of a panel of 40 human colon cancer cell lines with IC50 values of 20,nM or less. In vivo, using human colorectal tumor xenograft mouse models, LCR211 induced tumor regression and showed enhanced efficacy when combined with 5-FU. Both in vitro evaluation of ADCC (antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity) and CDC (complement-dependent cytotoxicity), and in vivo studies using a non-functional DR5 specific antibody or SCID-Beige mice, suggested ADCC and CDC are unlikely to be the mechanism to ablate tumors in vivo. LBY135 and LCR211 appear to mediate cell death and tumor regression mainly through apoptosis, as demonstrated by the activation of caspase 3, caspase 8, M30, and TUNEL assay. In addition, the discovery of synergy between cross-linked LBY135 and TRAIL not only revealed the unique epitope of LBY135, but also demonstrated an additional mechanism of action for LBY135 in vivo. LBY135 demonstrates promise as a novel therapeutic for cancer treatment and is currently in Phase I clinical trials. Drug Dev Res 69: 69,82, 2008. © 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||