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Theoretical Considerations (theoretical + consideration)
Selected AbstractsThe Perception of Distance in the Cultivation Process: A Theoretical Consideration of the Relationship Between Television Content, Processing Experience, and Perceived DistanceCOMMUNICATION THEORY, Issue 3 2006Helena Bilandzic This article proposes an integrative theoretical perspective of the cultivation process, starting from the notion that subjective social reality is organized in "zones of relevance," with some social elements being closer, and some more remote, to an individual's everyday life (L. P. Berger & T. Luckmann, 1967; A. Schutz, 1970b). Media effects are assumed to depend on such a perception of distance that modifies the mode in which television content is processed, stored, and integrated into existing beliefs and attitudes. Two notions of closeness are elaborated for television viewing: experiential closeness, emphasizing the personal biographical situation, and mediated closeness, focusing on the narrative experience. Recent theoretical approaches to cultivation and research on transportation into narratives are integrated within the framework of perceived distance. [source] Gender, Citizenship and Subjectivity: Some Historical and Theoretical ConsiderationsGENDER & HISTORY, Issue 3 2001Kathleen Canning Because the French Revolution failed to produce a widely acceptable definition of citizenship, the limits of manhood suffrage in the early nineteenth century were uncertain. Social practices, in particular scientific activity, served as claims to the status of citizen. By engaging in scientific pastimes, bourgeois Frenchmen asserted that they possessed the rationality and autonomy that liberal theorists associated both with manliness and with civic capacity. However, bourgeois science was never a stable signifier of masculinity or of competence. As professional science emerged, the bourgeois amateur increasingly became the feminised object of satire rather than the sober andmeritorious citizen-scientist. [source] Public employment and labour market performanceECONOMIC POLICY, Issue 34 2002Yann Algan Summary We explore the consequences of public employment for labour market performance. Theory suggests that public employment may not only crowd out private employment, but also increase overall unemployment if, by offering attractive working conditions, it draws additional individuals into the labour force. Empirical evidence from a sample of OECD countries in the 1960,2000 period suggests that, on average, creation of 100 public jobs may have eliminated about 150 private sector jobs, slightly decreased labour market participation, and increased by about 33 the number of unemployed workers. Theoretical considerations and empirical evidence, however, suggest that the crowding out effect of public jobs on private jobs is only significant in countries where public production is highly substitutable to private activities and the public sector offers more attractive wages and/or other benefits than the private labour market. [source] Enhancement of detection sensitivity for indirect photometric detection of anions and cations in capillary electrophoresisELECTROPHORESIS, Issue 12-13 2003Cameron Johns Abstract This review focuses on the indirect photometric detection of anions and cations by capillary electrophoresis. Special emphasis has been placed on the sensitivity of the technique and approaches taken to enhance detection limits. Theoretical considerations and requirements have been discussed, including buffering, detection sensitivity, separation of cations, and detector linearity. A series of tables detailing highly absorbing probes and the conditions of their use for indirect photometric detection are included. [source] Multiaxial fatigue of rubber: Part I: equivalence criteria and theoretical aspectsFATIGUE & FRACTURE OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES, Issue 6 2005W. V. MARS ABSTRACT This paper investigates commonly used approaches for fatigue crack nucleation analysis in rubber, including maximum principal strain (or stretch), strain energy density and octahedral shear strain criteria. The ability of these traditional equivalence criteria, as well as a recent equivalence criterion (the cracking energy density) to predict multiaxial fatigue behaviour is explored. Theoretical considerations are also introduced relating to the applicability of various fatigue life analysis approaches. These include the scalar nature of traditional equivalence criteria, robustness of the criteria investigated for a wide range of multiaxial loadings, effects of crack closure and applications to non-proportional multiaxial loadings. It is shown that the notion of a stress or strain amplitude tensor used for the analysis of multiaxial loading in metals is not appropriate in the analysis of rubber due to nonlinearity associated with finite strains and near incompressibility. Taken together, these considerations illustrate that traditional criteria are not sufficiently consistent or complete to permit confident analysis of arbitrary multiaxial loading histories, and that an analysis approach specific to the failure plane is needed. Of the three traditional criteria, maximum principal strain is shown to match most closely to the cracking energy density criterion, in terms of a failure locus in principal stretch space. [source] Pay Policies of Firms and Collective Wage Contracts,An Uneasy Partnership?INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS, Issue 1 2006KNUT GERLACH Theoretical considerations suggest that firms establish consistent internal wage structures and pay wage premiums of similar size across occupational groups. Strong evidence for the existence of coherent employer pay policies across occupations is found using a German employer,employee data set. However, firm-specific elements of wage policies are less prevalent in firms applying industry-level collective contracts than in firms with individual-level wage contracts. [source] GradH-Correction: guaranteed sizing gradation in multi-patch parametric surface meshingINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR NUMERICAL METHODS IN ENGINEERING, Issue 4 2005Stefano Pippa Abstract In this paper a new method, called GradH-Correction, for the generation of multi-patch parametric surface meshes with controlled sizing gradation is presented. Such gradation is obtained performing a correction on the size values located on the vertices of the background mesh used to define the control space that governs the meshing process. In the presence of a multi-patch surface, like shells of BREP solids, the proposed algorithm manages the whole composite surface simultaneously and as a unique entity. Sizing information can spread from a patch to its adjacent ones and the resulting size gradation is independent from the surface partitioning. Theoretical considerations lead to the assertion that, given a parameter ,, after performing a GradH-Correction of level , over the control space, the unit mesh constructed using the corrected control space is a mesh of gradation , in the real space (target space). This means that the length ratio of any two adjacent edges of the mesh is bounded between 1/, and ,. Numerical results show that meshes generated from corrected control spaces are of high quality and good gradation also when the background mesh has poor quality. However, due to mesh generator imprecision and theoretical limitations, guaranteed gradation is achieved only for the sizing specifications and not for the generated mesh. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Theoretical study of NMR chemical shift induced by H/D isotope effectINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF QUANTUM CHEMISTRY, Issue 15 2010Kimikazu Sugimori Abstract The isotope effect induced by deuterium substituted species is observed in molecular properties, such as geometry, kinetics, and electronic state, of the molecules through nuclear-electron interaction. Theoretical considerations and experimental alignments have been studied by ab initio molecular orbital, density functional theory, and other empirical strategies. The Born-Oppenheimer approximation with nuclear vibrational wavefunction can treat isotope effect because nuclear mass effect account for the average distance of vibrational motion. In this study, we introduce Morse anharmonic oscillator model to calculate average internuclear distance of diatomic molecules having X-H bonding and X-D bonding. Morse parameters are determined by fitting to potential energy surface of molecular orbital and/or density functional calculations, and then the average distance are obtained as the expectation value of the analytical Morse vibrational wavefunction. Nuclear magnetic resonance shielding constants of the H/D isotopomer are calculated again on the average distance by using GIAO with B3LYP and CCSD calculation. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Int J Quantum Chem, 2010 [source] CYLINDRICAL AND CONICAL FOLD GEOMETRIES IN THE CANTARELL STRUCTURE, SOUTHERN GULF OF MEXICO: IMPLICATIONS FOR HYDROCARBON EXPLORATIONJOURNAL OF PETROLEUM GEOLOGY, Issue 3 2006J. J. Mandujano V. The NW-SE trending Cantarell structure in the Gulf of Campeche hosts the largest oilfield in Mexico. The oil occurs predominantly in latest Cretaceous , earliest Tertiary breccias with subsidiary reserves in Upper Jurassic (Oxfordian and Kimmeridgian) and Lower Cretaceous oolitic and partially dolomitized limestones, dolomites and shaly limestones. Cantarell has been interpreted both as a fold-and-thrust zone and as a dextral transpressional structure. Analysis of structure contours at 100m intervals, on the tops of the Tertiary breccia and the Kimmeridgian (Upper Jurassic) dolomite, indicates that the structure is an upright cylindrical fold with gently plunging conical terminations; there is also a conical portion in the central part of the structure. The axes of the central, NW and SE cones are subvertical. This geometry indicates that the two fold terminations and the central cone are aprons rather than points, with the NW and central cone axes intersecting the cylindrical fold axis at the point where the geometry switches from conical to cylindrical. The apical angle (i.e. the angle between the fold and cone axes) varies as follows: (i) in the NW cone, it is ,70° in the breccia and ,76° in the Kimmeridgian dolomite; (ii) in the central cone, it is ,77° in the breccia and ,73° in the Kimmeridgian dolomite; and (iii) in the SE cone, it is ,64° in the breccia and ,57° in the Kimmeridgian dolomite. This indicates that whereas the fold opens with depth in the NW cone, it tightens with depth in the central and SE cones. Assuming a parallel fold geometry, these apical angles indicate an increase in volume in the NW cone (i.e. larger hydrocarbon reservoirs), compared to the central and SE cones. Theoretical considerations indicate that the curvature increases dramatically towards the point of the cone. In the case of the Cantarell structure, the apices of the cones are located at the conical-cylindrical fold junctions, where the highest curvature may have resulted in a higher degree of fracturing. The coincidence of maximum curvature and the intersection of the conical and cylindrical fold axes in the fold culminations with porous and permeable reservoir rocks may have made these locations favourable for the accumulation of hydrocarbons. [source] Genetic estimates of contemporary effective population size: what can they tell us about the importance of genetic stochasticity for wild population persistence?MOLECULAR ECOLOGY, Issue 15 2008FRISO P. PALSTRA Abstract Genetic stochasticity due to small population size contributes to population extinction, especially when population fragmentation disrupts gene flow. Estimates of effective population size (Ne) can therefore be informative about population persistence, but there is a need for an assessment of their consistency and informative relevance. Here we review the body of empirical estimates of Ne for wild populations obtained with the temporal genetic method and published since Frankham's (1995) review. Theoretical considerations have identified important sources of bias for this analytical approach, and we use empirical data to investigate the extent of these biases. We find that particularly model selection and sampling require more attention in future studies. We report a median unbiased Ne estimate of 260 (among 83 studies) and find that this median estimate tends to be smaller for populations of conservation concern, which may therefore be more sensitive to genetic stochasticity. Furthermore, we report a median Ne/N ratio of 0.14, and find that this ratio may actually be higher for small populations, suggesting changes in biological interactions at low population abundances. We confirm the role of gene flow in countering genetic stochasticity by finding that Ne correlates strongest with neutral genetic metrics when populations can be considered isolated. This underlines the importance of gene flow for the estimation of Ne, and of population connectivity for conservation in general. Reductions in contemporary gene flow due to ongoing habitat fragmentation will likely increase the prevalence of genetic stochasticity, which should therefore remain a focal point in the conservation of biodiversity. [source] Galaxy,galaxy lensing by non-spherical haloes , I. Theoretical considerationsMONTHLY NOTICES OF THE ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, Issue 2 2010Paul J. Howell ABSTRACT We use a series of Monte Carlo simulations to investigate the theory of galaxy,galaxy lensing by non-spherical dark matter haloes. The simulations include a careful accounting of the effects of multiple deflections on the galaxy,galaxy lensing signal. In a typical observational data set where the mean tangential shear of sources with redshifts zs, 0.6 is measured with respect to the observed symmetry axes of foreground galaxies with redshifts zl, 0.3, we find that the signature of anisotropic galaxy,galaxy lensing differs substantially from the simple expectation that one would have in the absence of multiple deflections. In general, the observed ratio of the mean tangential shears, ,+(,)/,,(,), is strongly suppressed compared to the function that one would measure if the intrinsic symmetry axes of the foreground galaxies were known. Depending upon the characteristic masses of the lenses, the observed ratio of the mean tangential shears may be consistent with an isotropic signal (despite the fact that the lenses are non-spherical), or it may even be reversed from the expected signal (i.e. the mean tangential shear for sources close to the observed minor axes of the lenses may exceed the mean tangential shear for sources close to the observed major axes of the lenses). These effects are caused primarily by the fact that the images of the lens galaxies have, themselves, been lensed and therefore the observed symmetry axes of the lens galaxies differ from their intrinsic symmetry axes. We show that the effects of lensing of the foreground galaxies on the observed function ,+(,)/,,(,) cannot be eliminated simply by the rejection of foreground galaxies with very small image ellipticities nor by simply focusing the analysis on sources that are located very close to the observed symmetry axes of the foreground galaxies. We conclude that any attempt to use a measurement of ,+(,)/,,(,) to constrain the shapes of dark matter galaxy haloes must include Monte Carlo simulations that take multiple deflections properly into account. [source] Electrocarboxylation of Benzyl Halides through Redox Catalysis on the Preparative ScaleCHEMISTRY - A EUROPEAN JOURNAL, Issue 28 2006Onofrio Scialdone Dr. Abstract The electrocarboxylation of benzyl halides to the corresponding carboxylic acids through homogeneous charge-transfer catalysis was investigated both theoretically and experimentally to determine the influence of the operative parameters on the yield of the process and on the catalyst consumption. Theoretical considerations, based on fast kinetics of redox catalysis, were confirmed by the electrocarboxylation of 1-phenyl-1-chloroethane catalyzed by 1,3-benzenedicarboxylic acid dimethyl ester performed at a carbon cathode under different operative conditions. We obtained high yields of the target carboxylic acid and experienced a low catalyst consumption by operating with optimized [RX]bulk/[CO2]bulk and [RX]bulk/[catalyst] ratios. [source] The association of unresolved attachment status and cognitive processes in maltreated adolescentsCHILD ABUSE REVIEW, Issue 1 2009Linda Webster Abstract This exploratory investigation sought to gain a better understanding of the mental representations of attachment in maltreated adolescents, and how, if at all, unresolved attachment representations are related to cognitive processes in this population. Measures of cognitive functioning, attachment state of mind and parent ratings on attention were obtained from 38 adolescents with a history of maltreatment. Results showed that maltreated adolescents with unresolved states of mind in regard to attachment scored significantly lower on measures of cognitive processes of attention, working memory and cognitive efficiency, even when intelligence was controlled for in the analyses. Theoretical considerations, implications for future research and clinical implications are discussed. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] CONFIGURING HISTORICAL FACTS THROUGH HISTORICAL FICTION: AGENCY, ART-IN-FACT, AND IMAGINATION AS STEPPING STONES BETWEEN THEN AND NOWEDUCATIONAL THEORY, Issue 2 2007Kent Den Heyer Through reading a work of historical fiction, Ursula Hegi's novel Stones from the River, Kent den Heyer and Alexandra Fidyk offer a theoretical consideration of the following questions and their classroom implications: What is the role of historical fiction in enabling the imaginative grappling with historical fact? Or, in what ways does historical fiction enable us to come to terms with the ethical imperatives of learning from the past? What role does agency play in historical imagination? These are questions of ethics. They are, therefore, also questions of education. [source] WARNING DISPLAYS IN SPINY ANIMALS: ONE (MORE) EVOLUTIONARY ROUTE TO APOSEMATISMEVOLUTION, Issue 12 2005Michael P. Speed Abstract To date, theoretical or laboratory simulations of aposematic evolution in prey animals have focused narrowly on internally stored chemical defense as the source of unprofitability and ignore aposematic advertisement of physical defenses such as spines (and defensive hairs, claws, etc.). This has occurred even though aposematism in spiny animals has been recognized since the 19th century. In this paper we present the first detailed theoretical consideration of aposematism in spiny animals, focusing on questions of initial evolution, costs of display, and coevolution of displays with defenses. Using an individual-based evolutionary model, we found that spines (or similar physical defenses) can easily evolve without aposematism, but when spines do evolve, aposematic displays can also easily evolve if they help to make the prey animal distinctive and if they draw attention to the physical threat. When aposematic displays evolve, they cause reduced investment in costly spines, so that, in addition to signaling unprofitability, aposematic display may enhance the cost-effectiveness of antipredator defenses (one exception to this conclusion is if the display is itself as costly as the defense). For animals with stinging spines, combining physical and chemical defense, the evolution of aposematic display may lead to reduced investment in the toxin compared to the spine. This occurs because spines act as both secondary (repellent) defenses and as primary defenses (their own visible, honest advertisement), whereas internally stored toxins only (generally) act as repellent secondary defenses. We argue that conspicuous aposematism in spines functions as an attention-getting mechanism, whereas conspicuous aposematic display in purely toxic animals may be explained by signal reliability arguments. Finally, one (more) route by which aposematism may initially evolve is by spiny rather than purely chemically defended species, spreading to species with other forms of secondary defense as the signal becomes common. [source] On/off switching on polymer conformationMACROMOLECULAR SYMPOSIA, Issue 1 2003Kenichi Yoshikawa Abstract The manner of folding transition from elongated coil to compact globule of single polymer chain is discussed. Based on theoretical consideration, it is argued the semi-flexible polymer chain exhibits large discrete transition on the level of individual single chains, whereas the transition looks continuous, or cooperative, on the ensemble of chains. As the experimental verification, in the present article thermodynamic and kinetic aspects of folding transition of single giant DNA molecules are described. It is shown that rich variety of nano-ordered structures are obtained from single DNA molecules through suitable setup of the experimental conditions. The stability of such nano-structures generated from single polymer chain is discussed in relation to the ordered compact structure with large number of chains in semi-dilute and concentrated polymer solutions. [source] Rationale for esthetic tissue preservation of a fresh extraction socket by an implant treatment concept simulating a tooth replantationDENTAL TRAUMATOLOGY, Issue 1 2010Georgia Trimpou A soft-tissue recession must be avoided, whether it is due to a compression of the peri-implant soft-tissue caused by an over-dimensioned restoration in the cervical collar of the provisional crown or to a too small dimensioned sulcus former. A simulation of the exact dimension of the lost tooth , especially on the cervical part of the new provisional restoration , is expected to preserve all relevant information and allows the design of a naturally looking emergence profile. Based on theoretical considerations and a case report, the authors intend to demonstrate that a near-naturally dimensioned sealing of the dento-gingival soft-tissue collar may initiate a tissue-maintaining healing process, similar to a tooth replantation. The natural dental crown, connected to an implant instead of the root, is applied for a tight sealing of the wound. If due to traumatic impact the tooth is no longer available, a naturally dimensioned crown restoration will serve as an alternative wound sealant. [source] Analysis of fundamental light receiving characteristics of spherical solar cellsELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATIONS IN JAPAN, Issue 6 2008Hiroki Ishikawa Abstract Spherical solar cells are claimed to have some advantageous characteristics superior to those of ordinary planar solar cells. The most significant one is that the spherical solar cells have no directivity to light. This paper examines the characteristics based on geometrical considerations. The authors prove that a single spherical cell has no directivity as a whole. In practical use, many cells are used in an array configuration, where an individual cell receives the shadows cast by other cells around it. The adjacent shadows, so named in this paper, cause directivity. Their effects are evaluated geometrically and the theoretical considerations are verified through experiments. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Electron Comm Jpn, 91(6): 34,46, 2008; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/ecj.10119 [source] Discussion on ,Personality psychology as a truly behavioural science' by R. Michael FurrEUROPEAN JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY, Issue 5 2009Article first published online: 14 JUL 200 Yes We Can! A Plea for Direct Behavioural Observation in Personality Research MITJA D. BACK and BORIS EGLOFF Department of Psychology, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany mback@uni-leipzig.de Furr's target paper (this issue) is thought to enhance the standing of personality psychology as a truly behavioural science. We wholeheartedly agree with this goal. In our comment we argue for more specific and ambitious requirements for behavioural personality research. Specifically, we show why behaviour should be observed directly. Moreover, we illustratively describe potentially interesting approaches in behavioural personality research: lens model analyses, the observation of multiple behaviours in diverse experimentally created situations and the observation of behaviour in real life. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. The Categories of Behaviour Should be Clearly Defined PETER BORKENAU Department of Psychology, Martin-Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Germany p.borkenau@psych.uni-halle.de The target paper is helpful by clarifying the terminology as well as the strengths and weaknesses of several approaches to collect behavioural data. Insufficiently considered, however, is the clarity of the categories being used for the coding of behaviour. Evidence is reported showing that interjudge agreement for retrospective and even concurrent codings of behaviour does not execeed interjudge agreement for personality traits if the categories being used for the coding of behaviour are not clearly defined. By contrast, if the behaviour to be registered is unambiguously defined, interjudge agreement may be almost perfect. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Behaviour Functions in Personality Psychology PHILIP J. CORR Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK Philip.Corr@btopenworld.com Furr's target paper highlights the importance, yet under-representation, of behaviour in published articles in personality psychology. Whilst agreeing with most of his points, I remain unclear as to how behaviour (as specifically defined by Furr) relates to other forms of psychological data (e.g. cognitive task performance). In addition, it is not clear how the functions of behaviour are to be decided: different behaviours may serve the same function; and identical behaviours may serve different functions. To clarify these points, methodological and theoretical aspects of Furr's proposal would benefit from delineation. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. On the Difference Between Experience-Sampling Self-Reports and Other Self-Reports WILLIAM FLEESON Department of Psychology, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, USA fleesonW@wfu.edu Furr's fair but evaluative consideration of the strengths and weaknesses of behavioural assessment methods is a great service to the field. As part of his consideration, Furr makes a subtle and sophisticated distinction between different self-report methods. It is easy to dismiss all self-reports as poor measures, because some are poor. In contrast, Furr points out that the immediacy of the self-reports of behaviour in experience-sampling make experience-sampling one of the three strongest methods for assessing behaviour. This comment supports his conclusion, by arguing that ESM greatly diminishes one the three major problems afflicting self-reports,lack of knowledge,and because direct observations also suffer from the other two major problems afflicting self-reports. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. What and Where is ,Behaviour' in Personality Psychology? LAURA A. KING and JASON TRENT Department of Psychology, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA kingla@missouri.edu Furr is to be lauded for presenting a coherent and persuasive case for the lack of behavioural data in personality psychology. While agreeing wholeheartedly that personality psychology could benefit from greater inclusion of behavioural variables, here we question two aspects of Furr's analysis, first his definition of behaviour and second, his evidence that behaviour is under-appreciated in personality psychology. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Naturalistic Observation of Daily Behaviour in Personality Psychology MATTHIAS R. MEHL Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA mehl@email.arizona.edu This comment highlights naturalistic observation as a specific method within Furr's (this issue) cluster direct behavioural observation and discusses the Electronically Activated Recorder (EAR) as a naturalistic observation sampling method that can be used in relatively large, nomothetic studies. Naturalistic observation with a method such as the EAR can inform researchers' understanding of personality in its relationship to daily behaviour in two important ways. It can help calibrate personality effects against act-frequencies of real-world behaviour and provide ecological, behavioural personality criteria that are independent of self-report. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Measuring Behaviour D. S. MOSKOWITZ and JENNIFER J. RUSSELL Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Canada dsm@psych.mcgill.ca Furr (this issue) provides an illuminating comparison of the strengths and weaknesses of various methods for assessing behaviour. In the selection of a method for assessing behaviour, there should be a careful analysis of the definition of the behaviour and the purpose of assessment. This commentary clarifies and expands upon some points concerning the suitability of experience sampling measures, referred to as Intensive Repeated Measurements in Naturalistic Settings (IRM-NS). IRM-NS measures are particularly useful for constructing measures of differing levels of specificity or generality, for providing individual difference measures which can be associated with multiple layers of contextual variables, and for providing measures capable of reflecting variability and distributional features of behaviour. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Behaviours, Non-Behaviours and Self-Reports SAMPO V. PAUNONEN Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada paunonen@uwo.ca Furr's (this issue) thoughtful analysis of the contemporary body of research in personality psychology has led him to two conclusions: our science does not do enough to study real, observable behaviours; and, when it does, too often it relies on ,weak' methods based on retrospective self-reports of behaviour. In reply, I note that many researchers are interested in going beyond the study of individual behaviours to the behaviour trends embodied in personality traits; and the self-report of behaviour, using well-validated personality questionnaires, is often the best measurement option. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. An Ethological Perspective on How to Define and Study Behaviour LARS PENKE Department of Psychology, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK lars.penke@ed.ac.uk While Furr (this issue) makes many important contributions to the study of behaviour, his definition of behaviour is somewhat questionable and also lacks a broader theoretical frame. I provide some historical and theoretical background on the study of behaviour in psychology and biology, from which I conclude that a general definition of behaviour might be out of reach. However, psychological research can gain from adding a functional perspective on behaviour in the tradition of Tinbergens's four questions, which takes long-term outcomes and fitness consequences of behaviours into account. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. What is a Behaviour? MARCO PERUGINI Faculty of Psychology, University of Milan,Bicocca, Milan, Italy marco.perugini@unimib.it The target paper proposes an interesting framework to classify behaviour as well as a convincing plea to use it more often in personality research. However, besides some potential issues in the definition of what is a behaviour, the application of the proposed definition to specific cases is at times inconsistent. I argue that this is because Furr attempts to provide a theory-free definition yet he implicitly uses theoretical considerations when applying the definition to specific cases. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Is Personality Really the Study of Behaviour? MICHAEL D. ROBINSON Department of Psychology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, USA Michael.D.Robinson@ndsu.edu Furr (this issue) contends that behavioural studies of personality are particularly important, have been under-appreciated, and should be privileged in the future. The present commentary instead suggests that personality psychology has more value as an integrative science rather than one that narrowly pursues a behavioural agenda. Cognition, emotion, motivation, the self-concept and the structure of personality are important topics regardless of their possible links to behaviour. Indeed, the ultimate goal of personality psychology is to understanding individual difference functioning broadly considered rather than behaviour narrowly considered. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Linking Personality and Behaviour Based on Theory MANFRED SCHMITT Department of Psychology, University of Koblenz-Landau, Landau, Germany schmittm@uni-landau.de My comments on Furr's (this issue) target paper ,Personality as a Truly Behavioural Science' are meant to complement his behavioural taxonomy and sharpen some of the presumptions and conclusions of his analysis. First, I argue that the relevance of behaviour for our field depends on how we define personality. Second, I propose that every taxonomy of behaviour should be grounded in theory. The quality of behavioural data does not only depend on the validity of the measures we use. It also depends on how well behavioural data reflect theoretical assumptions on the causal factors and mechanisms that shape behaviour. Third, I suggest that the quality of personality theories, personality research and behavioural data will profit from ideas about the psychological processes and mechanisms that link personality and behaviour. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. The Apparent Objectivity of Behaviour is Illusory RYNE A. SHERMAN, CHRISTOPHER S. NAVE and DAVID C. FUNDER Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA funder@ucr.edu It is often presumed that objective measures of behaviour (e.g. counts of the number of smiles) are more scientific than more subjective measures of behaviour (e.g. ratings of the degree to which a person behaved in a cheerful manner). We contend that the apparent objectivity of any behavioural measure is illusory. First, the reliability of more subjective measures of behaviour is often strikingly similar to the reliabilities of so-called objective measures. Further, a growing body of literature suggests that subjective measures of behaviour provide more valid measures of psychological constructs of interest. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Personality and Behaviour: A Neglected Opportunity? LIAD UZIEL and ROY F. BAUMEISTER Department of Psychology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA Baumeister@psy.fsu.edu Personality psychology has neglected the study of behaviour. Furr's efforts to provide a stricter definition of behaviour will not solve the problem, although they may be helpful in other ways. His articulation of various research strategies for studying behaviour will be more helpful for enabling personality psychology to contribute important insights and principles about behaviour. The neglect of behaviour may have roots in how personality psychologists define the mission of their field, but expanding that mission to encompass behaviour would be a positive step. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Through-the-Cycle Ratings Versus Point-in-Time Ratings and Implications of the Mapping Between Both Rating TypesFINANCIAL MARKETS, INSTITUTIONS & INSTRUMENTS, Issue 1 2010Rebekka Topp The two philosophies of ratings, one that includes cyclical effects and the other that doesn't, are mirrored by the two different rating types commonly known as point-in-time (pit) and through-the-cycle (ttc). Point-in-time ratings try to evaluate the current situation of a customer by taking into account both cyclical and permanent effects. In contrast, through the-cycle ratings focus mainly on the permanent component of default risk and are nearly independent from cyclical changes in the creditworthiness of a customer. In this paper we give a review of the characteristics of both rating types and examine whether these properties can actually be observed in practice. In this context we present the results of an analysis of Standard& Poor's rating data, which show that the ratings, though being through-the-cycle, still vary in accordance with the business cycle. Another concern of this paper is the wide spread practice to map ,external' through-the-cycle ratings to ,internal' point-in-time ratings, with the purpose to enrich or validate a financial institution's internal rating database. We show that in doing so financial institutions severely misspecify customers' risk profiles and under- or overestimate costs in connection with credit pricing or capitalization. We confirm our theoretical considerations by calculating pricing quantities when using one or the other rating information. [source] Bigger is better: implications of body size for flight ability under different light conditions and the evolution of alloethism in bumblebeesFUNCTIONAL ECOLOGY, Issue 6 2007A. KAPUSTJANSKIJ Summary 1In social insects, reproductive success and survival of the colony critically depend on the colony's ability to efficiently allocate workers to the various tasks which need to be performed. In bumblebees, workers show a large variation of body size within a colony. Large workers tend to leave the nest and forage for nectar and pollen, whereas small workers stay inside the nest and fulfill nest duties. It was speculated that size-related differences of the sensory system might contribute to alloethism found in bumblebee colonies. 2In the first part, we investigated how body size determines eye morphology. We measured several eye parameters of Bombus terrestris workers and drones. In both, workers and drones, larger individuals had larger eyes with larger facet diameters, more ommatidia and larger ocelli. At similar body size, drones exhibited larger eyes and ocelli compared to workers. Due to theoretical considerations, we predict that large individuals with large eyes should be better able to operate in illumination conditions of lower intensity than small individuals, since ommatidial sensitivity is proportional to the square of facet diameter. 3In the second part, we tested this prediction. In a behavioural experiment, we first caught bumblebees of various sizes in the field and then determined the lowest light intensity level at which they are just able to fly under controlled laboratory conditions. We tested workers of B. terrestris and B. pascuorum, and workers and drones of B. lapidarius. Large bumblebees were able to fly under lower light levels compared to small bees, with light intensity thresholds ranging from 1·1 to 5·5 lux. 4Our results indicate that the increased light sensitivity of the visual system of large bumblebees allows them to fly under poor light conditions, for example, very early in the morning or late at dusk. This is of potential benefit to the survival of a bumblebee colony since flowers that open early in the morning usually have accumulated a relatively high amount of nectar and pollen throughout the night, and large bumblebees can utilize these resources earlier than most other bees. Thus, our findings have important implications for the understanding of the functional significance and evolution of alloethism in bumblebee colonies. [source] Uncertainties in interpretation of isotope signals for estimation of fine root longevity: theoretical considerationsGLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY, Issue 7 2003YIQI LUOArticle first published online: 25 JUN 200 Abstract This paper examines uncertainties in the interpretation of isotope signals when estimating fine root longevity, particularly in forests. The isotope signals are depleted ,13C values from elevated CO2 experiments and enriched ,14C values from bomb 14C in atmospheric CO2. For the CO2 experiments, I explored the effects of six root mortality patterns (on,off, proportional, constant, normal, left skew, and right skew distributions), five levels of nonstructural carbohydrate (NSC) reserves, and increased root growth on root ,13C values after CO2 fumigation. My analysis indicates that fitting a linear equation to ,13C data provides unbiased estimates of longevity only if root mortality follows an on,off model, without dilution of isotope signals by pretreatment NSC reserves, and under a steady state between growth and death. If root mortality follows the other patterns, the linear extrapolation considerably overestimates root longevity. In contrast, fitting an exponential equation to ,13C data underestimates longevity with all the mortality patterns except the proportional one. With either linear or exponential extrapolation, dilution of isotope signals by pretreatment NSC reserves could result in overestimation of root longevity by several-fold. Root longevity is underestimated if elevated CO2 stimulates fine root growth. For the bomb 14C approach, I examined the effects of four mortality patterns (on,off, proportional, constant, and normal distribution) on root ,14C values. For a given ,14C value, the proportional pattern usually provides a shorter estimate of root longevity than the other patterns. Overall, we have to improve our understanding of root growth and mortality patterns and to measure NSC reserves in order to reduce uncertainties in estimated fine root longevity from isotope data. [source] The Psychological Basis of Historical Explanation: Reenactment, Simulation, and the Fusion of HorizonsHISTORY AND THEORY, Issue 1 2002Karsten R. Stueber In this article I will challenge a received orthodoxy in the philosophy of social science by showing that Collingwood was right in insisting that reenactment is epistemically central for historical explanations of individual agency. Situating Collingwood within the context of the debate between simulation theory and what has come to be called "theory theory" in contemporary philosophy of mind and psychology, I will develop two systematic arguments that attempt to show the essential importance of reenactment for our understanding of rational agency. I will furthermore show that Gadamer's influential critique of the reenactment model distinguishes insufficiently between the interpretation of certain types of texts and the explanation of individual actions. In providing an account of individual agency, we are committed to a realistic understanding of our ordinary scheme of action-explanations and have thus to recognize the centrality of reenactment. Nevertheless, Collingwood's emphasis on reenactment is certainly one-sided. I will demonstrate its limitations even for accounting for individual agency, and show how it has to be supplemented by various theoretical considerations, by analyzing the different explanatory strategies that Christopher Browning and Daniel Goldhagen use to explain the behavior of the ordinary men in Reserve Battalion 101 during World War II. [source] Micromechanical aspects of the shear strength of wet granular soilsINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR NUMERICAL AND ANALYTICAL METHODS IN GEOMECHANICS, Issue 14 2008U. El Shamy Abstract This paper presents a micromechanical model for the analysis of wet granular soils at low saturation (below 30%). The discrete element method is employed to model the solid particles. The capillary water is assumed to be in a pendular state and thus exists in the form of liquid bridges at the particle-to-particle contacts. The resulting inter-particle adhesion is accounted for using the toroidal approximation of the bridge. Hydraulic hysteresis is accounted for based on the possible mechanism of the formation and breakage of the liquid bridges during wetting and drying phases. Shear test computational simulations were conducted at different water contents under relatively low net normal stresses. The results of these simulations suggest that capillary-induced attractive forces and hydraulic hysteresis play an important role in affecting the shear strength of the soil. These attractive forces produce a tensile stress that contributes to the apparent cohesion of the soil and increases its stiffness. During a drying phase, capillary-induced tensile stresses, and hence shear strength, tend to be larger than those during a wetting phase. The proposed model appears to capture the macroscopic response of wet granular materials and revealed a number of salient micromechanical mechanisms and response patterns consistent with theoretical considerations. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Integration schemes for von-Mises plasticity models based on exponential maps: numerical investigations and theoretical considerationsINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR NUMERICAL METHODS IN ENGINEERING, Issue 9 2005E. Artioli Abstract We consider three different exponential map algorithms for associative von-Mises plasticity with linear isotropic and kinematic hardening. The first scheme is based on a different formulation of the time continuous plasticity model, which automatically grants the yield consistency of the method in the numerical solution. The second one is the quadratically accurate but non-yield consistent method already proposed in Auricchio and Beirão da Veiga (Int. J. Numer. Meth. Engng 2003; 56: 1375,1396). The third method is an improved version of the second one, in which the yield consistency condition is enforced a posteriori. We also compare the performance of the three methods with the classical radial return map algorithm. We develop extensive numerical tests which clearly show the main advantages and disadvantages of the three methods. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Insights on a sign-preserving numerical method for the advection,diffusion equationINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR NUMERICAL METHODS IN FLUIDS, Issue 8 2009E. SousaArticle first published online: 17 DEC 200 Abstract In this paper we explore theoretically and numerically the application of the advection transport algorithm introduced by Smolarkiewicz to the one-dimensional unsteady advection,diffusion equation. The scheme consists of a sequence of upwind iterations, where the initial iteration is the first-order accurate upwind scheme, while the subsequent iterations are designed to compensate for the truncation error of the preceding step. Two versions of the method are discussed. One, the classical version of the method, regards the second-order terms of the truncation error and the other considers additionally the third-order terms. Stability and convergence are discussed and the theoretical considerations are illustrated through numerical tests. The numerical tests will also indicate in which situations are advantageous to use the numerical methods presented. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Tracking accuracy of a semi-Lagrangian method for advection,dispersion modelling in riversINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR NUMERICAL METHODS IN FLUIDS, Issue 1 2007S. Néelz Abstract There is an increasing need to improve the computational efficiency of river water quality models because: (1) Monte-Carlo-type multi-simulation methods, that return solutions with statistical distributions or confidence intervals, are becoming the norm, and (2) the systems modelled are increasingly large and complex. So far, most models are based on Eulerian numerical schemes for advection, but these do not meet the requirement of efficiency, being restricted to Courant numbers below unity. The alternative of using semi-Lagrangian methods, consisting of modelling advection by the method of characteristics, is free from any inherent Courant number restriction. However, it is subject to errors of tracking that result in potential phase errors in the solutions. The aim of this article is primarily to understand and estimate these tracking errors, assuming the use of a cell-based backward method of characteristics, and considering conditions that would prevail in practical applications in rivers. This is achieved separately for non-uniform flows and unsteady flows, either via theoretical considerations or using numerical experiments. The main conclusion is that, tracking errors are expected to be negligible in practical applications in both unsteady flows and non-uniform flows. Also, a very significant computational time saving compared to Eulerian schemes is achievable. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] In-building power lines as high-speed communication channels: channel characterization and a test channel ensembleINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS, Issue 5 2003Tooraj Esmailian Abstract In-building power lines have often been considered as attractive media for high-speed data transmission, particularly for applications like home networking. In this paper, we develop models for power line channels based both on theoretical considerations and practical measurements. We consider power line channel frequency response and noise models in the 1,30 MHz band and propose a number of power line test channels in which to measure the performance of power line modems. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Thermodynamic analysis of two-step solar water splitting with mixed iron oxidesINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENERGY RESEARCH, Issue 10 2009Martin Roeb Abstract A two-step thermochemical cycle for solar production of hydrogen from water has been developed and investigated. It is based on metal oxide redox pair systems, which can split water molecules by abstracting oxygen atoms and reversibly incorporating them into their lattice. After successful experimental demonstration of several cycles of alternating hydrogen and oxygen production, the present work describes a thermodynamic study aiming at the improvement of process conditions and at the evaluation of the theoretical potential of the process. In order to evaluate the maximum hydrogen production potential of a coating material, theoretical considerations based on thermodynamic laws and properties are useful and faster than actual tests. Through thermodynamic calculations it is possible to predict the theoretical maximum output of H2 from a specific redox-material under certain conditions. Calculations were focussed on the two mixed iron oxides nickel,iron-oxide and zinc,iron-oxide. In the simulation the amount of oxygen in the redox-material is calculated before and after the water-splitting step on the basis of laws of thermodynamics and available material properties for the chosen mixed iron oxides. For the simulation the commercial Software FactSage and available databases for the required material properties were used. The analysis showed that a maximum hydrogen yield is achieved if the reduction temperature is raised to the limits of the operation range, if the temperature for the water splitting is lowered below 800°C and if the partial pressure of oxygen during reduction is decreased to the lower limits of the operational range. The predicted effects of reduction temperature and partial pressure of oxygen could be confirmed in experimental studies. The increased hydrogen yield at lower splitting temperatures of about 800°C could not be confirmed in experimental results, where a higher splitting temperature led to a higher hydrogen yield. As a consequence it can be stated that kinetics must play an important role especially in the splitting step. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] International Nonregimes: A Research Agenda,INTERNATIONAL STUDIES REVIEW, Issue 2 2007Radoslav S. Dimitrov Why are multilateral institutions absent from some areas of international relations? Governments have not concluded regulatory policy agreements on tactical nuclear weapons and small arms control, deforestation, information privacy, and other transnational issues. The absence of regimes in such policy arenas is an empirical phenomenon with considerable theoretical and policy implications. Yet, existing scholarship on global governance largely ignores the instances in which such institutions do not emerge. This essay develops a research agenda to extend and strengthen regime theory through analysis of nonregimes. We articulate the concept, draw a typology of nonregimes, discuss the contributions that nonregime studies can make to IR theory, outline methodological approaches to pursue the proposed agenda, and highlight a priori theoretical considerations to guide such research. Six illustrative cases in the realms of arms control, environmental management, and international political economy are described and used to make preliminary observations of factors that impede regime formation. [source] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||