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Selected AbstractsRegularity of species richness relationships to patch size and shapeECOGRAPHY, Issue 4 2007Einar Heegaard This study aims to assess the degree of regularity in the effect of patch size and patch shape on plant species richness across a macroscale region, and to evaluate the implications for nature conservation. Our study area covers south-eastern Norway and contains 16 agricultural landscapes with 2162 patches. To analyse regularity a local linear mixed model (LLMM) was applied. This procedure estimates the richness trends due to shared effects of size and shape, and simultaneously provides the landscape-specific random effect. The latter is a direct estimate of the degree of irregularity between the landscapes, conditioned on specific values of size and shape. The results show a positive interaction between the shape and size of patches, which is repeated for all landscapes. The shape of the patches produces more regular patterns in species richness than the size of patches. This we attribute to effects of dispersal and distance to neighbouring patches of different environmentally conditioned species pools. Large and complex patches have shorter average distance to neighbouring patches (of different types) than large simple-shaped (circular) patches have. We attribute the higher species richness of the former, given a similar area, to a higher number of species dispersed from the outside into the more complex plot. For small patches, however, the distance to the edge is short relative to normal dispersal distances, for patches of all shapes. This explains why the positive effect of shape complexity on species richness is stronger for large patches. This interpretation is supported by a strong spatial correlation conditioned on the most complex patches. Theories of dynamics in biodiversity in patchy landscapes must consider shape as a regulator at the same level as size, and both shape and size of patches should be simultaneously taken into account for management planning. [source] The Contribution of Secondary Space to Benthic Taxon Richness of a Coral Reef: Colonisation of Dendrostrea frons (Mollusca)MARINE ECOLOGY, Issue 3 2001David K. A. Barnes Abstract. The reef-dwelling oyster Dendrostrea frons occupied only a small proportion of space in coral reefs of the Quirimba Archipelago, Mozambique, but supported a disproportionately high variety of taxa. Assemblages on primary (substratum), secondary (dead coral heads) and ephemeral secondary space (D. frons shells) of similar area were compared across 5 depths (5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 m) and at four taxonomic levels (species, genus, class and phylum). Differences between the taxonomic richness of each type of space differed with both taxonomic level considered and depth. Of the three categories of space considered, ephemeral secondary space had the most taxa at all levels with the maximum at 10,,,15 m. Despite being small in space and time, animal externa, such as shells of D. frons, may provide important niches for particular organisms at many taxonomic levels. [source] Post-Impact Assessment of Oil Pollution in Agbada West Plain of Niger Delta, Nigeria: Field Reconnaissance and Total Extractable Hydrocarbon ContentCHEMISTRY & BIODIVERSITY, Issue 10 2004Typical post-impact assessment of an oil-spill-impacted site in Agbada west plain of the Niger Delta basin of Nigeria was carried out 13 months after recorded incidence of spillage, using empirical indices of reconnaissance and extractable hydrocarbon content. Field-reconnaissance surveys revealed lower species' numbers and diversity of surface and subterranean flora and fauna. The presence and absence of such plant species as Elaeis guineensis, Musanga cecropiodes, and Andropogon gayanus, as well as animal species like earthworms and nematodes in sampled plots, corroborated the evidence provided by the total extractable hydrocarbon content (of (2.53±0.43)×102,mg/kg and (2.00±0.76)×102,mg/kg at surface and subsurface depths, resp.) on the level of degradation and/or regeneration at the polluted site. The most important evidence that oiling must have been responsible, at least in part, for the reduction in species' number and diversity was provided by the plant cover, Andropogan gayanus, which occurred at a lower density of 0.9,plants/m2 in the oil-impacted plots and 14.00 plants/m2 in the unimpacted reference plots of an adjacent, geographically similar area. The presence of this species on site thus presented a significant difference (P<0.05) of over 85%, and indicated exhaustion or impoverishment of impacted soils. Elaeis guineensis, with a population density of 0.1,stands/m2, provided evidence of past cultivation on site, while species like Musanga cecropioides, with a density of 0.5,stands/m2, at the unimpacted site, confirmed the abandonment of the farmstead over a long period of time. For the fauna, the most sensitive indicator of hydrocarbon toxicity was provided by nematode Xiphinema sp. that were completely absent in the oil-impacted site. [source] A SENTIMENTAL JOURNEY TO CRIME: EFFECTS OF RESIDENTIAL HISTORY ON CRIME LOCATION CHOICE,CRIMINOLOGY, Issue 2 2010WIM BERNASCO Many offenses take place close to where the offender lives. Anecdotal evidence suggests that offenders also might commit crimes near their former homes. Building on crime pattern theory and combining information from police records and other sources, this study confirms that offenders who commit robberies, residential burglaries, thefts from vehicles, and assaults are more likely to target their current and former residential areas than similar areas they never lived in. In support of the argument that spatial awareness mediates the effects of past and current residence, it also is shown that areas of past and present residence are more likely to be targeted if the offender lived in the area for a long time instead of briefly and if the offender has moved away from the area only recently rather than a long time ago. The theoretical implications of these findings and their use for investigative purposes are discussed, and suggestions for future inquiry are made. [source] VIOLENCE AMONG ADOLESCENTS LIVING IN PUBLIC HOUSING: A TWO-SITE ANALYSIS,CRIMINOLOGY AND PUBLIC POLICY, Issue 1 2003TIMOTHY O. IRELAND Research Summary: Current knowledge about violence among public housing residents is extremely limited. Much of what we know about violence in and around public housing is derived from analysis of Uniform Crime Report (UCR) data or victimization surveys of public housing residents. The results of these studies suggest that fear of crime among public housing residents is high and that violent offense rates may be higher in areas that contain public housing compared with similar areas without public housing. Yet, "[r]ecorded crime rates (and victimization rates) are an index not of the rate of participation in crime by residents of an area, but of the rate of crime (or victimization) that occurs in an area whether committed by residents or non-residents" (Weatherburn et al., 1999:259). Therefore, neither UCR nor victimization data measurement strategies address whether crime in and around public housing emanates from those who reside in public housing. Additionally, much of this research focuses on atypical public housing,large developments with high-rise buildings located in major metropolitan areas. To complement the existing literature, we compare rates of self-reported crime and violence among adolescents who reside in public housing in Rochester, N.Y., and Pittsburgh, Pa., with adolescents from the same cities who do not live in public housing. In Rochester, property crime and violence participation rates during adolescence and early adulthood among those in public housing are statistically equivalent to participation rates among those not in public housing. In Pittsburgh, living in public housing during late adolescence and early adulthood, particularly in large housing developments,increases the risk for violent offending, but not for property offending. The current study relies on a relatively small number of subjects in public housing at any single point in time and is based on cross-sectional analyses. Even so, there are several important policy implications that can be derived from this study, given that it moves down a path heretofore largely unexplored. Policy Implications: If replicated, our findings indicate that not all public housing is inhabited disproportionately by those involved in crime; that to develop appropriate responses, it is essential to discover if the perpetrators of violence are residents or trespassers; that policy should target reducing violence specifically and not crime in general; that a modification to housing allocation policies that limits, to the extent possible, placing families with children in late adolescence into large developments might reduce violence perpetrated by residents; that limited resources directed at reducing violence among residents should be targeted at those developments or buildings that actually have high rates of participation in violence among the residents; and that best practices may be derived from developments where violence is not a problem. [source] Landscape and Coast Development of A Lowland Fjord Margin Following Deglaciation, East GreenlandGEOGRAFISKA ANNALER SERIES A: PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, Issue 3 2001Louise Hansen The landscapes of western Jameson Land bordering Hall Bredning fjord comprise upper river basins, glacial landscapes, lower river basins and a near-shore zone. The upper river basins are incised into bedrock and display no cover of young sediments whilst the glacial landscapes, located closer to the coast, are dominated by Pleistocene deposits and an irregular topography with hills and ridges. The lower river basins, dissecting the glacial landscapes, are connected to the upper river basins and contain well-defined Holocene delta terraces. The near-shore zone, which includes the present coast, displays a few raised shorelines. Geomorphological observations combined with stratigraphic work and 14C dates provide a chronological framework for the development of landscape and shoreline, as presented by a four-stage reconstruction. The first stage covers the deglaciation of western Jameson Land at the Weichselian-Holocene transition after a collapse of the main fjord glacier in Hall Bredning. The sea inundated the low-lying areas on Jameson Land forming small side-entry fjord basins that possibly follow the track of older valleys. This was followed by a second stage, the paraglacial period, when large meltwater production and sediment transport resulted in a fast infilling of the side-entry fjord basins by deltas. These are now exposed in terraces in the lower river basins at 70,80 m a.s.l. During a third stage, the relaxation period, fluvial activity decreased and the land surface was increasingly occupied by a cover of tundra vegetation. A glacio-isostatic rebound resulted in a relative sea level fall and fluvial incision. During stages two and three the coast was exposed to shallow marine processes that aided the alignment of the coast. Stages one to three presumably lasted for less than 2000 years. During stage four, the stable period, lasting for several thousand years till the present, there were minor adjustments of shoreline and landscape. The four-step reconstruction describes the sedimentary response of a lowland fjord margin to dramatic changes in climate and sea level. The distribution of erosion and sedimentation during this development was mainly controlled by topography. The reconstruction of the latest environmental development of Jameson Land puts new light on Jameson Land's long and complex Quaternary stratigraphic record. The reconstruction may also be used as a model for the interpretation of deposits in similar areas elsewhere. [source] Down-regulation of pathogenic autoantibody response in a slowly progressive Heymann nephritis kidney disease modelINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PATHOLOGY, Issue 6 2004Arpad Z. Barabas Summary In the present article, we describe an antigen-specific down-regulation of a pathogenic autoantibody (aab)-mediated disease process in an experimental autoimmune kidney disease in rats called slowly progressive Heymann nephritis (SPHN). This autoimmune disease is initiated and maintained by pathogenic immunoglobulin G (IgG) autoantibodies (aabs), which cause an immune-complex (IC) glomerulonephritis associated with proteinuria. We achieved down-regulated pathogenic aab response in SPHN rats by injections of an IC containing the native nephritogenic antigen and specific high-titred nonpathogenic IgM aabs, in antigen excess. The injected IC increased the level of circulating nonpathogenic IgM aabs; the increased levels of specific IgM aabs in turn facilitated the removal of the injected altered nephritogenic and liberated autoantigens from the renal tubules and greatly diminished the production of pathogenic aabs and the build up of immune deposits in the glomeruli. While animals treated early had advantages over rats whose kidney disease was well established before treatment; animals treated late into the disease still manifested noticeable improvements in similar areas, i.e. with lessened proteinuria, kidney lesion reduction and a decreased pathogenic aab response. At the end of the experiment at 29 weeks, 80% of all the treated rats had insignificantly low levels of circulating IgG aabs, indicating cessation of pathogenic aab production and corresponding termination of the disease process. In contrast, most untreated rats with the kidney disease still had high levels of circulating pathogenic aabs at the end of the experiment, which maintained disease progression. [source] Spatial analysis of taxonomic and genetic patterns and their potential for understanding evolutionary historiesJOURNAL OF BIOGEOGRAPHY, Issue 11 2004Sophia A. Bickford Abstract Aim, The aim of this research is to develop and investigate methods for the spatial analysis of diversity based on genetic and taxonomic units of difference. We use monophyletic groups of species to assess the potential for these diversity indices to elucidate the geographical components of macro-scaled evolutionary processes. Location, The range occupied by Pultenaea species in temperate and sub-tropical eastern Australia, extending from western South Australia (133° E,32° S) to Tasmania (146° E,43° S) to coastal central Queensland (148° E,20° S). Methods, We applied a series of both spatially explicit and spatially implicit analyses to explore the nature of diversity patterns in the genus Pultenaea, Fabaceae. We first analysed the eastern species as a whole and then the phylogenetic groups within them. We delineated patterns of endemism and biotic (taxon) regions that have been traditionally circumscribed in biogeographical studies of taxa. Centres of endemism were calculated using corrected weighted endemism at a range of spatial scales. Biotic regions were defined by comparing the similarity of species assemblages of grid cells using the Jaccard index and clustering similar cells using hierarchical clustering. On the basis that genetically coherent areas were likely to be more evolutionary informative than species patterns, genetic indices of similarity and difference were derived. A matrix of similarity distances between taxa was generated based on the number of shared informative characters of two sections of trnL-F and ndhF chloroplast nuclear regions. To identify genetically similar areas, we clustered cells using the mean genetic similarities of the species contained within each pair of cells. Measures of the mean genetic similarity of species in areas were delineated using a geographically local multi-scalar approach. Resultant patterns of genetic diversity are interpreted in relation to theories of the evolutionary relationships between species and species groups. Results, Centres of Pultenaea endemism were defined, those of clades 1 congruent with the spatially separated centres of clades 2 and 3. The taxonomic classification analysis defined cells with shared groups of species, which in some cases clustered when plotted in geographic space, defining biotic regions. In some instances the distribution of biotic regions was congruent with centres of endemism, however larger scale groupings were also apparent. In clade 1 one set of species was replaced by another along the extent of the range, with some connectivity between some geographically disjunct regions due to the presence of widespread species. In the combined analysis of clade 2 and 3 species the major biotic (taxonomic) groups with geographic coherence were defined by species in the respective clades, representing the geographic separation of these clades. However distinctive biotic regions within these main groupings of clades 2 and 3 were also apparent. Clustering cells using the mean genetic similarities of the species contained within each pair of cells indicated that some of the taxonomically defined biotic boundaries were the result of changes in composition of closely related species. This was most apparent in clades 1 and 2 where most cells were highly genetically similar. In clade 3 genetically distinct groups remained and were in part defined by sister taxa with disjunct distributions. Gradients in mean genetic similarity became more apparent from small to larger scales of analysis. At larger scales of analysis, regions of different levels of genetic diversity were delineated. Regions with highest diversity levels (lowest level of similarity) often represented regions where the ranges of phylogenetically distinctive species intergraded. Main conclusions, The combined analysis of diversity, phylogeny and geography has potential to reveal macro-scaled evolutionary patterns from which evolutionary processes may be inferred. The spatial genetic diversity indices developed in this study contribute new methods for identifying coherent evolutionary units in the landscape, which overcome some of the limitations of using taxonomic data, and from which the role of geography in evolutionary processes can be tested. We also conclude that a multiple-index approach to diversity pattern analysis is useful, especially where patterns may be the result of a long history of different environmental changes and related evolutionary events. The analysis contributes to the knowledge of large-scale diversity patterns of Pultenaea which has relevance for the assessment of the conservation status of the genus. [source] Intrafloral differentiation of stamens in heterantherous flowersJOURNAL OF SYSTEMATICS EVOLUTION, Issue 1 2009Zhong-Lai LUO Abstract Flowers that have heteromorphic stamens (heterantherous flowers) have intrigued many researchers ever since the phenomenon was discovered in the 19th century. The morphological differentiation in androecia has been suggested as a reflection of "labor division" in pollination in which one type of stamens attracts pollinators and satisfies their demand for pollen as food and the other satisfies the plant's need for safe gamete dispersal. The extent and patterns of stamen differentiation differ notably among taxa with heterantherous flowers. Seven species with heteromorphic stamens in three genera were sampled from Leguminosae and Melastomataceae, and the morphological difference of androecia, pollen content, pollen histochemistry and viability, pollen micro-morphology, as well as the main pollinators were examined and compared. Pollen number differs significantly between stamen sets of the same flower in most species investigated, and a correlation of pollen number and anther size was substantiated. Higher pollen viabilities were found in the long (pollinating) stamens of Senna alata (L.) Roxb. and S. bicapsularis (L.) Roxb. Dimorphic pollen exine ornamentation is reported here for the first time in Fordiophyton faberi Stapf. The height of stigma and anther tips of the long stamens in natural conditions was proved to be highly correlated, supporting the hypothesis that they contact similar areas of the pollinator's body. [source] ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOUTHERN RIGHT WHALES (EUBALAENA AUSTRALIS) ON THE SOUTH COAST OF SOUTH AFRICA II: WITHIN BAY DISTRIBUTIONMARINE MAMMAL SCIENCE, Issue 3 2004Simon H. Elwen Abstract Environmental factors are thought to strongly influence the distribution and predictability of the coastal distribution of southern right whales (Eubalaena australis) off South Africa. Preferred habitat had generally shallow sloping sedimentary floors and was characteristically protected from open ocean swell and prevalent seasonal winds. This study investigated whether habitat choices at smaller scales (within bays) were similar. Fine scale distribution patterns (GPS) from three years' surveys (1997, 1999, 2000) were analyzed separately within the three main concentration areas St Sebastian Bay, De Hoop, and Walker Bay (containing ,73% of cow-calf pairs and ,49% of unaccompanied adults in the whole survey region). Whale density at this scale of within particular bays did not correlate well with predicted variables, but Chi-squared analysis strongly supported results at broader scales, in all bays. Post-hoc"choice" tests between similar areas differing in only one variable revealed that cow-calves preferred (presumed) sandy substrates and especially protection from swell. The strength and predictability of preferences shown at fine scale (where individual movement and weather variability could have great influence) provide strong support for findings at larger scales and emphasize the importance of environmental factors in the habitat choice of wintering right whales. [source] The carbonization of colloidal polyaniline nanoparticles to nitrogen-containing carbon analoguesPOLYMER INTERNATIONAL, Issue 7 2010Jaroslav Stejskal Abstract The carbonization of nanostructures afforded by conducting polymers represents a new route to the preparation of functional nanostructured carbons. The exposure of colloidal polyaniline particles stabilized with poly(N -vinylpyrrolidone) or silica nanoparticles at 650 °C in inert atmosphere led, in both cases, to nitrogen-containing carbonaceous materials with specific surface areas of 200 and 205 m2 g,1, respectively, and conductivities of 8.3 × 10,7 and 1.9 × 10,10 S cm,1, respectively. The latter material contained 77 wt% of silica. The original particulate nanostructure of the samples was preserved after carbonization. The carbon-to-nitrogen atomic ratio was 7.2 and 7.9; the nitrogen content in the carbonized polyaniline,poly(N -vinylpyrrolidone) particles was 10.8 wt%. Thermogravimetric analysis in air revealed their stability to be up to 500 °C. This is comparable with commercial multi-wall carbon nanotubes, which have similar areas of application. The nitrogen-containing carbons are potentially useful as supports for catalysts and in applications where carbon of higher hydrophilicity would be of benefit. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry [source] Kinship and social bonds in female chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PRIMATOLOGY, Issue 10 2009Kevin Langergraber A large body of theoretical and empirical research suggests that kinship influences the development and maintenance of social bonds among group-living female mammals, and that human females may be unusual in the extent to which individuals form differentiated social relationships with nonrelatives. Here we combine behavioral observations of party association, spatial proximity, grooming, and space use with extensive molecular genetic analyses to determine whether female chimpanzees form strong social bonds with unrelated individuals of the same sex. We compare our results with those obtained from male chimpanzees who live in the same community and have been shown to form strong social bonds with each other. We demonstrate that party association is as good a predictor of spatial proximity and grooming in females as it is in males, that the highest party association indices are consistently found between female dyads, that the sexes do not differ in the long-term stability of their party association patterns, and that these results cannot be explained as a by-product of the tendency of females to selectively range in particular areas of the territory. We also show that close kin (i.e. mother,daughter and sibling dyads) are very rare, indicating that the vast majority of female dyads that form strong social bonds are not closely related. Additional analyses reveal that "subgroups" of females, consisting of individuals who frequently associate with one another in similar areas of the territory, do not consist of relatives. This suggests that a passive form of kin-biased dispersal, involving the differential migration of females from neighboring communities into subgroups, was also unlikely to be occurring. These results show that, as in males, kinship plays a limited role in structuring the intrasexual social relationships of female chimpanzees. Am. J. Primatol. 71:840,851, 2009. © 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] Coat condition of ringtailed lemurs, Lemur catta, at Berenty Reserve, Madagascar: II.AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PRIMATOLOGY, Issue 3 2009tail alopecia associated with Leucaena leucocepahala Abstract Fur condition in wild ringtailed lemurs, Lemur catta, was recorded during September,November birth seasons 2001,2006 at Berenty Reserve, Madagascar. Body coat condition was scored on a scale from BS 0: full, smooth coat with guard hairs, to BS5: half or more of back and limbs hairless. Tail condition was scored from TS 0: full, to TS 5: half or more hairless. Where troop core areas included stands of Leucaena leucocephala, alopecia was dramatically more frequent than in similar areas without leucaena, including many animals with score BS5 or TS5, "bald lemur syndrome." Female coats were worse than males,' possibly related to female dominance and access to this preferred food. Tails in non-leucaena-feeding females tend to remain full, even if coats deteriorate, but with leucaena-feeding female tails are highly correlated with coat condition and equally bare. Coat and tail condition in L. catta reflected not only the dietary toxin but individual differences as well as differences between adjacent troops that may result from territorially mediated access to the environment. Leucaena contains the non-protein amino acid mimosine, a known cause of alopecia, wasting, and organ damage in livestock, although the effects are usually reversible. This is the first case of its effect in wildlife. Leucaena is an agroforestry tree introduced throughout the tropics. In high dietary concentrations leucaena might potentially affect any browsing mammal. Am. J. Primatol. 71:199,205, 2009. © 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] Development of a dedicated risk-adjustment scoring system for colorectal surgery (colorectal POSSUM),,BRITISH JOURNAL OF SURGERY (NOW INCLUDES EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SURGERY), Issue 9 2004P. P. Tekkis Background: The aim of the study was to develop a dedicated colorectal Physiological and Operative Severity Score for the enUmeration of Mortality and morbidity (CR-POSSUM) equation for predicting operative mortality, and to compare its performance with the Portsmouth (P)-POSSUM model. Methods: Data were collected prospectively from 6883 patients undergoing colorectal surgery in 15 UK hospitals between 1993 and 2001. After excluding missing data and 93 patients who did not satisfy the inclusion criteria, 4632 patients (68·2 per cent) underwent elective surgery and 2107 had an emergency operation (31·0 per cent); 2437 operations (35·9 per cent) for malignant and 4267 (62·8 per cent) for non-malignant diseases were scored. Stepwise logistic regression analysis was used to develop an age-adjusted POSSUM model and a dedicated CR-POSSUM model. A 60 : 40 per cent split-sample validation technique was adopted for model development and testing. Observed and expected mortality rates were compared. Results: The operative mortality rate for the series was 5·7 per cent (387 of 6790 patients) (elective operations 2·8 per cent; emergency surgery 12·0 per cent). The CR-POSSUM, age-adjusted POSSUM and P-POSSUM models had similar areas under the receiver,operator characteristic curves. Model calibration was similar for CR-POSSUM and age-adjusted POSSUM models, and superior to that for the P-POSSUM model. The CR-POSSUM model offered the best overall accuracy, with an observed : expected ratio of 1·000, 0·998 and 0·911 respectively (test population). Conclusion: The CR-POSSUM model provided an accurate predictor of operative mortality. External validation is required in hospitals different from those in which the model was developed. Copyright © 2004 British Journal of Surgery Society Ltd. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] High-definition Fourier domain OCT: non-invasive assessment of BRB changesACTA OPHTHALMOLOGICA, Issue 2009R BERNARDES Purpose To demonstrate the possibility of using a non-invasive imaging technique, the high-definition spectral domain optical coherence tomography, as a surrogate detector of blood-retinal barrier (BRB) breakdown. Methods Healthy volunteers and diabetic patients with diabetic retinopathy, age- related macular degeneration, choroidal neo-vascularisation and cystoid macular edema, underwent optical coherence tomography by Cirrus HD-OCT (Carl Zeiss Meditec, Dublin, CA, USA). Profiles of reflectivity distribution between the inner-limiting membrane and the retinal pigment epithelium were built, normalized, aligned and compared. Patients underwent retinal leakage analyzer (RLA) to identify areas of retinal fluorescein leakage into the vitreous as areas of blood-retinal barrier breakdown. Results The comparison between healthy volunteers' and patients' reflectivity distribution demonstrates these profiles differ. Moreover, when comparing reflectivity distribution within the same eye between areas of leakage and areas of non-leakage, the sum of the squared differences is over one decade relatively to the comparison between two similar areas (leakage/leakage or non-leakage/non-leakage). Conclusion These findings suggest that high-definition OCT may be useful in identifying areas of retinal leakage/BRB breakdown and therefore to be used as surrogate for fluorescein angiography and retinal leakage analyzer. [source] | |||||||||||||||||||