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Significant Negative Correlation (significant + negative_correlation)
Kinds of Significant Negative Correlation Selected AbstractsORIGINAL ARTICLE: Role of Inflammatory Cytokines and eNOS Gene Polymorphism in Pathophysiology of Pre-EclampsiaAMERICAN JOURNAL OF REPRODUCTIVE IMMUNOLOGY, Issue 3 2010Archana Singh Citation Singh A, Sharma D, Raghunandan C, Bhattacharjee J. Role of inflammatory cytokines and eNOS gene polymorphism in pathophysiology of pre-eclampsia. Am J Reprod Immunol 2010; 63: 244,251 Problem, Pre-eclampsia involves endothelial vascular dysfunction. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that (i) endothelial nitric oxide (NO) synthase Glu298Asp gene polymorphism limits constitutive NO production causing endothelial dysfunction and (ii) inflammatory cytokines impairs endothelium dependent relaxation in pre-eclampsia. Method of study, This cross-sectional study included 50 women with pre-eclampsia and 50 healthy pregnant women. Their blood samples were analyzed for NO, inflammatory cytokines and endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) gene polymorphism. Result, Decreased NO levels whereas increased tumor necrosis factor-,, interleukin (IL)-6 and interleukin-2 were found in pre-eclampsia (P < 0.001). No significant differences were found in genotype/allele distribution between two groups. Significant negative correlation was observed between NO and IL-6 in pre-eclamptic group (P = 0.001). Conclusion, An IL-6-mediated endothelium dependent NO-cyclic guanine monophosphate-mediated relaxation pathway may be inhibited in systemic vessels in pre-eclampsia. As observed in this study Glu298Asp eNOS gene polymorphism did not showed significant association with pre-eclampsia. [source] An exploratory study of web-enhanced learning in undergraduate nurse educationJOURNAL OF CLINICAL NURSING, Issue 12 2007BSc (Hons), Elizabeth A Mitchell MSc, PG Dip Ed Aim.,The aim of the study was to explore undergraduate nursing students' views of web-enhanced learning and to examine issues relating to their pattern of access to a rehabilitation nursing module website. Background.,As information technology is an integral component of western health care, all nurses are expected to have the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes to be competent in its use. Methods.,In phase 1, a focus group interview was conducted with students (n = 6) who had not logged onto a similar module website. In phase 2, a questionnaire was administered to students undertaking the web-enhanced module. In phase 3, each student's (n = 231) pattern of access to the module was identified and compared with the student's performance as evidenced by their module assignment mark. Results.,Students held favourable attitudes towards web-enhanced learning but some students experienced difficulties. There was a significant positive association between the students' assignment mark and the number of times logged onto the module website. Significant negative correlations were found between mark and week of first log on, and week of first log on and number of hits onto the module site. This suggests that students who logged onto the module in the first few weeks were more likely to achieve higher marks. Conclusions.,This study's findings suggest that students who accessed the module website early and often were more likely to produce more comprehensive nursing assessments and consequently achieve higher assignment marks than their colleagues. Relevance to clinical practice.,The findings have relevance to all nurses as lifelong learning is a mandatory requirement for maintaining clinical competence and electronic learning can provide students (regardless of registration status) with the flexibility to gain access to course content at a time and place convenient to them. The role of electronic learning in promoting a more holistic nursing assessment is also discussed. [source] Soil-plant relationships, micronutrient contents, and cardenolide production in natural populations of Digitalis obscuraJOURNAL OF PLANT NUTRITION AND SOIL SCIENCE, Issue 1 2004Luis Roca-Pérez Abstract The production of secondary metabolites by plants growing in natural populations is conditioned by environmental factors. In the present study, we have investigated the relationships among soil properties, micronutrients in soils and plants, and cardenolide production from wild Digitalis obscura (Scrophulariaceae) populations. Young and mature leaves and soil samples were collected in ten different populations, corresponding to three Mediterranean bioclimatic belts (Thermo-, Meso-, and Supramediterranean belts). Soil (total and EDTA-extractable) and leaf micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu), and leaf cardenolide accumulation have been determined. Significant negative correlations were observed between Fe, Mn or Zn concentration in leaves and soil pH, as well as between Fe or Mn in leaves and carbonate content of soils. Only EDTA-extractable Mn was significantly correlated with Mn content in the plants. With regard to cardenolide content in leaves, this parameter was negatively correlated with Znleaf in young leaves and with Mnleaf in old leaves. Positively correlated, however, were Fe and cardenolide content in young leaves. The influence of environmental conditions and leaf micronutrient contents on cardenolide accumulation is discussed. Boden-Pflanze-Wechselwirkungen im Hinblick auf Mikroelement- und Cardenolidgehalte in wilden Digitalisobscura -Populationen Die Produktion von sekundären Stoffwechselprodukten in Pflanzen ist in hohem Grad abhängig von Umweltfaktoren. In dieser Studie wurde bei Wildtypen von Digitalis obscura der Einfluss bodenchemischer Eigenschaften (pH, Karbonatgehalt, Gesamt- und EDTA-extrahierbare Mikronährstoffgehalte) auf die Mikronährstoff- (Fe, Mn, Zn und Cu) und Cardenolidgehalte in den Pflanzen untersucht. Verwendet wurden Proben von jungen und reifen Blättern sowie Bodenproben aus zehn verschiedenen Populationen in drei bioklimatischen Zonen (Thermo-, Meso- und Supramittelmeergebiet). Festgestellt wurden signifikant negative Beziehungen zwischen Fe-, Mn- oder Zn-Gehalten in den Blättern und dem pH des Bodens, sowie zwischen Fe- oder Mn-Konzentration in den Blättern und dem Karbonatgehalt der Böden. Nur EDTA-extrahierbares Mn wies eine positive Beziehung zu den Mn-Gehalten in den Pflanzen auf. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass die Gehalte von Mikroelementen in den Blättern von D. obscura stärker vom pH des Bodens abhängig sind als von den Gesamt- oder den extrahierbaren Mikroelementgehalten der Böden. Ebenso wurden signifikant negative Beziehungen zwischen Cardenolidgehalten und Zn-Gehalten in jungen Blättern, sowie Mn-Gehalten in älteren Blättern festgestellt. Die Fe-Gehalte in jungen Blättern waren jedoch positiv mit dem Cardenolidgehalt korreliert. Diese Befunde werden im Hinblick auf die Cardenolidbiosynthese diskutiert. [source] Interactions between prostate volume, filling cystometric estimated parameters, and data from pressure-flow studies in 565 men with lower urinary tract symptoms suggestive of benign prostatic hyperplasiaNEUROUROLOGY AND URODYNAMICS, Issue 5 2001Mardy D. Eckhardt Abstract The aim of this study was to establish the characteristics and to investigate the interactions between prostate volume, degree of obstruction, bladder contractility, the prevalence of residual volume, bladder compliance, bladder capacities, and the prevalence of instability in a large, well-defined group of men with lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) suggestive of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). The 565 consecutive men included in this study met the criteria of the International Consensus Committee on BPH and voided more than 150 mL during uroflowmetry. Their residual urine volume and prostate size were estimated, and filling cystometry and pressure-flow studies were performed. Fifty-three percent of the men appeared to have obstruction. We found a positive correlation between prostate volume and Schäfer's obstruction grade, except that mean prostate volume decreased at Schäfer's grades 5 and 6. Significant negative correlations existed between Schäfer's grade and cystometric bladder capacity and effective capacity. Bladder outlet obstruction results in incomplete emptying. Of all men, 26% had a significant residual volume (,>,20% of cystometric capacity). Thirty-nine percent did not have residual volume. Of the 565 men, 46% had an unstable bladder. In particular, patients with an unstable bladder in the sitting and lying positions have a significantly higher Schäfer's grade and contractility grade and a significantly lower cystometric and effective bladder capacity compared with patients without instability. Patients with a residual volume or instability were significantly older. We conclude that in men with LUTS suggestive of BPH, abnormalities of bladder and bladder outlet function vary greatly and have complex mutual interactions. Neurourol. Urodynam. 20:579,590, 2001. © 2001 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] Trends in childhood leukemia mortality in Brazil and correlation with social inequalitiesCANCER, Issue 8 2007Karina B. Ribeiro DDS Abstract BACKGROUND. Mortality from childhood leukemia has declined substantially in developed countries but less markedly in the developing world. This study was designed to describe mortality trends in childhood leukemia and the impact of social inequalities on these trends in Brazil from 1980 to 2002. METHODS. Cancer mortality data by cause and estimates of resident population stratified by age and sex were obtained from the Brazilian Mortality Information System (SIM) for the years 1980 to 2002. Age-standardized (ages 0-19 years) mortality rates were calculated by the direct method using the 1960 world standard population. Trends were modeled using linear regression with 3-year moving average rates as the dependent variable and with the midpoint of the calendar year interval (1991) as the independent variable. The Index of Social Exclusion was used to classify the 27 Brazilian states. Pearson correlation was used to describe the correlation between social exclusion and variations in mortality in each state. RESULTS. Age-standardized mortality rates for boys decreased from 2.05 per 100,000 habitants in 1984 to 1.44 100,000 habitants in 1995, whereas the observed corresponding decline among girls was from 1.60 per 100,000 habitants in 1986 to 1.14 per 100,000 habitants in 1995. Statistically significant declining trends in mortality rates were observed for boys (adjusted correlation coefficient [r2] = 0.68; P < .001) and girls (adjusted r2 = 0.62; P < .001). Significant negative correlations between social inequality and changes in mortality were noted for boys (r = ,0.66; P = .001) and for girls (r = ,0.78; P < .001). CONCLUSIONS. A consistent decrease in mortality rates from childhood leukemia was noted in Brazil. Higher decreases in mortality were observed in more developed states, possibly reflecting better health care. Cancer 2007. © 2007 American Cancer Society. [source] 4156: Inflammatory mediators in the aqueous humor from patients with uveitis associated with Behçet's disease and Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada diseaseACTA OPHTHALMOLOGICA, Issue 2010A ABU EL ASRAR Purpose We studied interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein (IRBP), a dominant autoimmune antigen in the eye. Methods Aqueous humour samples from 28 patients with active uveitis were analysed for immunoglobulin G (IgG) content as a marker for blood-ocular barrier breakdown and by gelatinase B zymography for the detection of inflammation. The data were correlated with the presence of intact IRBP (approximately 140 kD) as determined by Western blot analysis and with the clinical disease activity. Results Aqueous humour samples from control eyes and eyes with low disease activity showed positive immunoreactivity for intact IRBP. The IRBP signal weakened or disappeared with higher disease activity. Significant positive correlations were observed between disease activity and levels of gelatinase B/matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) (rs=0.713; P<0.001) and IgG (rs=0.580; P=0.001). Significant negative correlations were found between levels of IRBP and disease activity (rs=-0.520; P=0.005) and levels of MMP-9 (rs=-0.727; P<0.001) and of IgG (rs=-0.834; P<0.001). Whereas neutrophil elastase converted intact IRBP into an immunoreactive 55 kD peptide in vitro, the conversion by neutrophil degranulates resembled more the in vivo context with a complete degradation of IRBP. Reversal of inflammation with immunosuppressive therapy was accompanied with reappearance of intact IRBP and disappearance of IgG and MMP-9. Conclusion The analysis of IRBP proteolysis is useful as a biomarker for uveitis and suggests that inhibition of proteinases might become a therapeutic strategy in an inflammatory context of a damaged blood-ocular barrier. [source] Age-related increase in haemoglobin A1c and fasting plasma glucose is accompanied by a decrease in , cell function without change in insulin sensitivity: evidence from a cross-sectional study of hospital personnelDIABETIC MEDICINE, Issue 3 2002A. P. Yates Abstract Aims To examine the influence of age on glucose homeostasis in a population of healthy, non-diabetic hospital personnel. Methods One hundred and twenty female and 71 male non-diabetic individuals (fasting plasma glucose < 7.0 mmol/l) were fasted overnight prior to blood sampling. Glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c), fasting plasma glucose (FPG) and fasting plasma insulin (FPI) were measured using a BioRad Diamat automated HPLC, a Hitachi 747 analyser and a sensitive in-house radioimmunoassay, respectively. Mathematical modelling of the fasting glucose and insulin pairs (homeostasis model assessment (HOMA)) generated indices of pancreatic , cell function, HOMA-B and tissue insulin sensitivity HOMA-S. Results Spearman rank correlation analysis showed that in the whole group there was a significant negative correlation between age and HOMA-B (rs= ,0.218, P = 0.0022) and a significant positive correlation between age and both HbA1c (rs= 0.307, P = 0.0001) and FPG (rs= 0.26, P = 0.0003). There was no correlation between age and either FPI (rs= ,0.08, P = 0.266) or HOMA-S (rs= 0.024, P = 0.75). Analysis by gender showed the above associations to be present in the females (rs= ,0.243, P = 0.0076; rs= 0.304, P = 0.0007; rs= 0.32, P = 0.0004 for age vs. HOMA-B, HbA1c, and FPG, respectively). Again there was no correlation of age with FPI or insulin sensitivity. In the males there was a significant correlation of HbA1c with age (rs= 0.35, P = 0.002), but no significant correlation of age with any of the other parameters. Conclusions Glycaemic control deteriorates with age in healthy, non-diabetic individuals. Age-related rises in FPG and haemoglobin A1c result from a small but steady decline in pancreatic , cell function. Diabet. Med. 19, 254,258 (2002) [source] Effects of size and morphology on swimming performance in juvenile brown trout (Salmo trutta L.)ECOLOGY OF FRESHWATER FISH, Issue 4 2003A. F. Ojanguren Abstract,,, Our study assesses swimming capacity (speed and stamina) and possible morphometric determinants of locomotor performance of juvenile brown trout (Salmo trutta L.). We addressed these issues at the individual level to have an approach of the functional significance of intraspecific variation in morphological design. Both swimming speed and endurance time showed significant positive relationships with fish length. Size-corrected values of speed and endurance time were negatively correlated suggesting a phenotypic trade-off between burst and prolonged swimming. Size was also highly correlated with all the morphological variables measured. Therefore, we used the residuals of the regressions of those variables on fish length to remove the effect of body size. A principal components analysis (PCA) summarised the 12 morphological variables into two factors, which accounted for 44.3% of the variance. PC1 combined several measures of body depth and width, whereas PC2 represented mainly postanal length relative to abdomen length. Relationships between the scores of the two factors and size-corrected values of maximum swimming speed and endurance time were weak. PC2 showed a significant positive relationship with endurance time; that is, individuals with longer caudal regions were able to swim against water flow for longer periods of time. Stoutness (PC1) showed a marginally significant negative correlation with endurance time. The lack of stronger relationships could be because of the low morphometric variability among the test individuals, all proceeding from the same population, reared in a common environment, and measured at the same ontogenetic stage. [source] Effect of weather factors on populations of Helicoverpa armigera moths at cotton-based agro-ecological sitesENTOMOLOGICAL RESEARCH, Issue 1 2009Ghulam Mustafa AHEER Abstract Pheromone trapping was used to monitor populations of the moth Helicoverpa armigera at five cotton-based agro-ecological sites , river, vegetable, orchard, forest and clean cultivation (areas under only cotton cultivation) , in the Bahawalpur district, Pakistan. Three locations at each site were chosen and three pheromone traps at each location were installed in cotton fields. Moth catches were recorded at 15,20 day intervals from 24 October 2004 to 19 December 2006. In 2004, the river sites showed the maximum trapped population of H. armigera (0.22/trap) followed by 0.165 per trap at the vegetable sites. Orchard, clean cultivation and forest sites had zero moth catches. In 2005, the river sites again showed the highest trapped population (0.57/trap), followed by clean cultivation (0.45/trap), vegetable (0.44/trap), orchard (0.40/trap) and forest (0.29/trap). The moths appeared during July to December and March to May. In 2006, sites showed non-significant difference, with a population range of 0.47 to 0.97 moths per trap. On average, river sites peaked at 0.49 per trap, followed by vegetable (0.38), clean cultivation (0.47), orchard (0.35) and forest (0.25) sites. The peak was observed on 3 April 2006, and moths appeared during February to July and October to December. The minimum temperature in river, forest and clean cultivation sites; the maximum temperature in orchard sites; and the average temperature in river, orchard, forest and clean cultivation sites showed significant positive correlations with trapped moth populations. Relative humidity showed significant negative correlation with population at the orchard sites in 2005. All weather factors during 2004 and 2006 showed non-significant correlations with the moth populations. No model was found to be best fit by multiple linear regression analysis; however, relative humidity, minimum temperature, maximum temperature, minimum temperature and maximum temperature contributed 8.40, 10.23, 2.43, 4.53 and 2.53% to the population fluctuation of the moth at river, vegetable, orchard, forest and clean cultivation sites, respectively. [source] Plasma sex steroid concentrations and gonadal aromatase activities in African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis) from South AfricaENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY & CHEMISTRY, Issue 8 2004Markus Hecker Abstract Adult African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis) were collected from a corn-growing region (CGR) and a non-corn-growing region (NCGR) with different exposure profiles for atrazine and related triazines. Physical, chemical, and biological parameters from the catchment areas were also measured. Frogs were surveyed for possible effects of exposure to triazine herbicides on plasma testosterone (T) and estradiol (E2) titers, gonadal aromatase activity, and gonad growth (GSI). Concentrations of both T and E2 varied among locations and were correlated to some accessory factors, such as pH, several ions, and metals. Greatest median plasma T concentrations (males: 19 ng/ml; females: 16 ng/ml) occurred in frogs inhabiting NCGR as compared to those from the CGR (males: 4 ng/ml; females: 1 ng/ml). Median E2 concentrations were also greater in frogs collected from the NCGR (males: 3 ng/ml; females: 28 ng/ml) than those in frogs from the CGR (males: 2 ng/ml; females: 5 ng/ml). Because some exposure to agricultural chemicals at both regions occurred, as did simultaneous exposures to multiple chemicals, a regression analysis was employed. Negative correlations were observed between plasma T concentrations and concentrations of atrazine, deisopropylatrazine, deethylatrazine, and tertbuthylazine in females and between T and diaminochlorotriazine in males. Estradiol in females exhibited a significant negative correlation with atrazine and deethylatrazine. No correlations were observed between gonadal aromatase activity or GSI and any of the agricultural chemicals measured. Median aromatase activities in ovaries varied among sampling sites ranging from 7 to >3,000 times greater than those in males when measurable. Testicular aromatase activity was below the detection limit of the assay in male frogs at most of the sites. Although exposure to agricultural inputs did not affect aromatase activities, effects of atrazine or coapplied pesticides on sex steroid homeostasis cannot be excluded at this point. [source] Valproate-induced thrombocytopenia: a prospective monotherapy studyEPILEPSIA, Issue 3 2008Wassim Nasreddine Summary Purpose: The frequency of valproate (VPA)-induced thrombocytopenia varied widely in previous studies, due to methodological differences. Our objective was to evaluate the relationship between trough VPA plasma levels and platelet counts and assess risk factors for the development of thrombocytopenia. Methods: Patients with refractory partial epilepsy were enrolled in this double-blind, multicenter, concentration,response trial that evaluated the efficacy and safety of high versus low trough plasma VPA concentrations following administration of divalproex sodium as monotherapy. Trough VPA concentrations and concomitant platelet counts were drawn at baseline and intermittently throughout the 24-week trial. Bivariate correlations and multivariate stepwise regression analysis were performed between platelet counts and multiple variables. A logistic regression analysis was done to determine the probability of developing thrombocytopenia at various VPA levels. Results: A total of 851 VPA levels and concomitant platelet counts were analyzed in 265 patients. Of these, 17.7% of patients experienced at least one episode of thrombocytopenia (platelet count , 100,000/,l) after exposure to divalproex sodium. A significant negative correlation was found between VPA levels and platelet counts. Women were significantly more likely to develop thrombocytopenia. The probability of developing thrombocytopenia substantially increased at trough VPA levels above 100 ,g/ml in women and above 130 ,g/ml in men. Discussion: Our data strongly support a causal relationship between rising plasma VPA levels and reduced platelet counts, with additional risk factors including female gender and lower baseline platelet counts. [source] Cognitive and behavioural characteristics are associated with personality dimensions in patients with eating disordersEUROPEAN EATING DISORDERS REVIEW, Issue 5 2003M. Vervaet DSM-IV categorizes eating disorders according to behavioural and cognitive characteristics. Based on personality-related and biological research, hypotheses have been formulated to explain differences in the symptomatology between the various types of eating disorders. Therefore, the study of the association between personality-related characteristics and behavioural and cognitive characteristics may contribute to our understanding of the causes and course of eating disorders. This study aimed, first, at describing personality characteristics (using Cloninger's Temperament and Character Inventory) in a group of eating disordered patients (n,=,272) according to the type of eating disorder. Three groups were compared: restricting anorexics (n,=,71), purging anorexics (n,=,84) and bulimics (n,=,118). Secondly, the association between personality characteristics and cognitive and behavioural aspects, using the Eating Disorders Inventory and the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire, was measured. In bulimics, positive correlations were found between novelty seeking on the one hand and external and emotional eating and bulimia on the other. Contrary to expectation, there was no significant correlation between novelty seeking and body dissatisfaction in bulimics. The significant difference between the restricting and purging type of anorexics regarding self-directedness, and restrained and emotional eating and drive for thinness corresponded with the significant negative correlation between these characteristics. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and Eating Disorders Association. [source] CLINICAL STUDY: Abnormalities in cortical and transcallosal inhibitory mechanisms in subjects at high risk for alcohol dependence: a TMS studyADDICTION BIOLOGY, Issue 3-4 2008Kesavan Muralidharan ABSTRACT Central nervous system (CNS) hyperexcitability and a resulting state of behavioral undercontrol are thought to underlie the vulnerability to early-onset alcohol dependence (AD). The aim of this study was to explore the differences in the functioning of cortical inhibitory systems, utilizing transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), in subjects at high risk (HR) and low risk (LR) for AD and to examine the relationship between CNS inhibition and behavioral undercontrol. Right-handed HR (n = 15) and LR (n = 15) subjects, matched for age, gender, height, weight and education, were assessed for psychopathology and family history of alcoholism using the Semi-Structured Assessment for the Genetics of Alcoholism and the Family Interview for Genetic Studies. Following single-pulse TMS, an electromyogram recorded from the right opponens pollicis muscle was used to measure the silent periods at different stimulus intensities. HR subjects had significantly shorter contralateral and ipsilateral (iSP) silent periods and a relatively higher prevalence of ,absent' iSP. They had significantly higher mean externalizing symptoms scores (ESS) than LR subjects, and there was a significant negative correlation between iSP duration and ESS. These preliminary findings suggest that HR subjects have relative impairments in corticocortical and transcallosal inhibitory mechanisms. The consequent state of CNS hyperexcitability may be etiologically linked to the excess of externalizing behaviors observed in this population, which is thought to be a predisposition to a higher risk of developing early-onset alcoholism. [source] An immunogold investigation of the distribution of GABA and glycine in nerve terminals on the somata of spherical bushy cells in the anteroventral cochlear nucleus of guinea pigEUROPEAN JOURNAL OF NEUROSCIENCE, Issue 4 2004S. Mahendrasingam Abstract Spherical bushy neurons in the anteroventral cochlear nucleus receive glutamatergic primary terminals from the cochlear nerve and terminals of noncochlear (i.e. nonprimary) origin, many of which colocalize gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glycine. Here the relationship between GABA and glycine in these terminals has been investigated using postembedding immunogold labelling. A significant negative correlation was found between the density of terminal labelling for GABA and for glycine in four guinea pigs. Terminals could be divided into three categories, GABA-only, glycine-only, or colocalizing depending on whether they had a significantly higher labelling density for either amino acid than the primary terminals. The overall labelling density in all four animals was significantly greater for GABA in GABA-only terminals than colocalizing ones but similar for glycine in both. Within the terminals, the labelling density over synaptic vesicles, nonvesicular regions of cytoplasm and mitochondria was also investigated. No significant difference was detected in the labelling density of vesicles compared with nonvesicular regions for either amino acid. However, a significant difference was found between the overall labelling density over mitochondria and nonvesicular regions for both. There was also significantly more mitochondrial GABA labelling in GABA-only terminals compared to colocalizing terminals but mitochondrial glycine labelling was similar in glycine-only and colocalizing terminals. Thus the level of GABA is higher in single than in colocalizing terminals, particularly in the mitochondria, but similar for glycine in both. It is possible therefore that the presence of glycine affects the level of GABA in the nonprimary terminals but that the presence of GABA does not affect the level of glycine. [source] Personality and approaches to learning as predictors of academic achievementEUROPEAN JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY, Issue 2 2003Åge DisethArticle first published online: 12 DEC 200 The relationship between personality, approaches to learning, and academic achievement was investigated. Two different undergraduate student samples, totalling 310 students, participated in the study. Results showed the expected significant correlations between the personality factors of openness, neuroticism, and conscientiousness, on the one hand, and deep, surface, and strategic approaches to learning, on the other. A significant negative correlation between surface approach and achievement was observed in sample 1. In sample 2, achievement was positively correlated with neuroticism, openness, and deep approach, and negatively correlated with agreeableness. Path analysis showed that each approach to learning was predicted by multiple personality traits, and that academic achievement was predicted by approaches to learning. A separate analysis showed that the relationship between openness and achievement was mediated by a deep approach to learning. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Factors controlling the partitioning of pyrene to dissolved organic matter extracted from different soilsEUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE, Issue 3 2005B. Marschner Summary The mobility of hydrophobic organic compounds (HOCs) in soils can be influenced by the presence of dissolved organic matter (DOM). While numerous studies have determined interactions of HOCs with humic and fulvic acids, only few data exist on the partitioning of HOCs to natural, non-fractionated DOM as it occurs in soil solutions. In this study, DOM was extracted from 17 soil samples with a broad range of chemical and physical properties, originating from different land uses. The partition coefficients of pyrene to DOM were determined in all soil extracts and for two commercial humic acids using the fluorescence quenching method. For the soil extracts, log KDOC values ranged from 3.2 to 4.5 litres kg,1. For the Aldrich and Fluka humic acids, log KDOC was 4.98 and 4.96 litres kg,1, respectively, thus indicating that they are not representative for soil DOM. After excluding these two values, the statistical analysis of the data showed a significant negative correlation between log KDOC and pH. This was also shown for one sample where the pH was adjusted to values ranging from 3 to 9. A multiple regression analysis suggested that ultraviolet absorbance at 280 nm (an indicator for aromaticity) and the E4:E6 ratio (an indicator for molecular weight) had additional effects on log KDOC. The results indicate that the partitioning of pyrene to DOM is reduced at alkaline pH, probably due to the increased polarity of the organic macromolecules resulting from the deprotonation of functional groups. Only within a narrow pH range was the KDOC of pyrene mainly related to the aromaticity of DOM. [source] Increases in pH and soluble salts influence the effect that additions of organic residues have on concentrations of exchangeable and soil solution aluminiumEUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE, Issue 3 2002M. S. Mokolobate Summary It has been suggested that additions of organic residues to acid soils can ameliorate Al toxicity. For this reason the effects of additions of four organic residues to an acid soil on pH and exchangeable and soil solution Al were investigated. The residues were grass, household compost, filter cake (a waste product from sugar mills) and poultry manure, and they were added at rates equivalent to 10 and 20 t ha,1. Additions of residues increased soil pH measured in KCl (pH(KCl)) and decreased exchangeable Al3+ in the order poultry manure > filter cake > household compost > grass. The mechanism responsible for the increase in pH differed for the different residues. Poultry manure treatment resulted in lower soil pH measured in water (pH(water)) and larger concentrations of total (AlT) and monomeric (Almono) Al in soil solution than did filter cake. This was attributed to a soluble salt effect, originating from the large cation content of poultry manure, displacing exchangeable Al3+ and H+ back into soil solution. The considerably larger concentrations of soluble C in soil solution originating from the poultry manure may also have maintained greater concentrations of Al in soluble complexed form. There was a significant negative correlation (r = ,0.94) between pH(KCl) and exchangeable Al. Concentrations of AlT and Almono in soil solution were not closely related with pH or exchangeable Al. The results suggest that although additions of organic residues can increase soil pH and decrease Al solubility, increases in soluble salt and soluble C concentrations in soil solution can substantially modify these effects. [source] THE REACTION NORM FOR ABDOMINAL PIGMENTATION AND ITS CURVE IN DROSOPHILA MEDIOPUNCTATA DEPEND ON THE MEAN PHENOTYPIC VALUEEVOLUTION, Issue 1 2009Felipe Rocha The idea of a general independence between the phenotypic plasticity and the mean value of a trait is, presently, a consensus. Here, we use the reaction norm of abdominal pigmentation (number of dark spots) of Drosophila mediopunctata in response to temperature, to test this idea. We raised eight strains, bearing two different chromosomal inversions and with varying mean phenotypic values, under 11 temperatures in a thermal gradient to test for predictions concerning mean phenotypic values, chromosomal inversions, and reaction norms. Our results revealed a strong effect of different phenotypic groups and no effect of different karyotypes on reaction norms. Moreover, we found a significant negative correlation between mean phenotypic value and the curvature of the reaction norms, revealing a high dependency of the reaction norm shape on mean phenotypic value. These results clearly reject the idea of genetic independence between mean value and phenotypic plasticity, and may indicate a pattern of correlation, which may include results from other traits and species, with an importance that has not been fully appreciated. [source] Possible Contribution of Central Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid Receptors to Resting Vascular Tone in Freely Moving RatsEXPERIMENTAL PHYSIOLOGY, Issue 5 2000Yumi Takemoto Previous studies have shown that central administration of GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), an inhibitory neurotransmitter, preferentially reduces hindquarters and carotid vascular resistances but not renal and coeliac vascular resistances in conscious rats. This study tested the hypothesis that these preferential actions of central GABA receptors are related to differences between vessels in resting autonomic vascular tone in freely moving rats. Rats were chronically implanted with intracisternal cannulas and/or electromagnetic probes to measure regional blood flows. In response to GABA administration, the changes in vascular resistance (arterial blood pressure/regional blood flow) of the hindquarters (n = 23) and carotid (n = 12) vascular beds were significantly and negatively correlated with basal vascular resistance. No such relationship was found for the renal (n = 21), coeliac (n = 13) and superior mesenteric (n = 23) vascular beds. This finding indicates that the responsiveness to GABA of brainstem pathways controlling the hindquarters and carotid vascular beds co-varies with resting resistance in hindquarters and carotid vessels. A similar analysis was performed, correlating the ongoing vascular resistance of each vessel with its response to ganglionic blockade by chlorisondamine. In this case, a significant negative correlation was also found for the hindquarters (n = 26) and carotid (n = 15) vascular beds, but not for the coeliac (n = 17) or superior mesenteric (n = 19) vessels. Together, these findings suggest that central GABA receptors accessible from the cisterna magna preferentially affect two vascular beds which, in the freely moving rat, show resting autonomic vascular tone. [source] Time series analyses reveal transient relationships between abundance of larval anchovy and environmental variables in the coastal waters southwest of TaiwanFISHERIES OCEANOGRAPHY, Issue 2 2009CHIH-HAO HSIEH Abstract We investigated environmental effects on larval anchovy fluctuations (based on CPUE from 1980 to 2000) in the waters off southwestern Taiwan using advanced time series analyses, including the state-space approach to remove seasonality, wavelet analysis to investigate transient relationships, and stationary bootstrap to test correlation between time series. For large-scale environmental effects, we used the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) to represent the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO); for local hydrographic conditions, we used sea surface temperature (SST), river runoff, and mixing conditions. Whereas the anchovy catch consisted of a northern species (Engraulis japonicus) and two southern species (Encrasicholina heteroloba and Encrasicholina punctifer), the magnitude of the anchovy catch appeared to be mainly determined by the strength of Eng. japonicus (Japanese anchovy). The main factor that caused the interannual variation of anchovy CPUE might change through time. The CPUE showed a negative correlation with combination of water temperature and river runoff before 1987 and a positive correlation with river runoff after 1988. Whereas a significant negative correlation between CPUE and ENSOs existed, this correlation was driven completely by the low-frequency ENSO events and explained only 10% of the variance. Several previous studies on this population emphasized that the fluctuations of larval anchovy abundance were determined by local SST. Our analyses indicated that such a correlation was transient and simply reflected ENSO signals. Recent advances in physical oceanography around Taiwan showed that the ENSOs reduced the strength of the Asian monsoon and thus weakened the China Coastal Current toward Taiwan. The decline of larval anchovy during ENSO may be due to reduced China Coastal Current, which is important in facilitating the spawning migration of the Japanese anchovy. [source] Reproductive traits of stream-dwelling brown trout Salmo trutta in contrasting neighbouring rivers of central SpainFRESHWATER BIOLOGY, Issue 8 2002G. G. NICOLA 1.,Reproductive traits were studied in seven wild populations of resident brown trout in Spain. We examined whether growth, and certain environmental conditions such as water temperature or food abundance, could explain interpopulation variation in the reproductive characters. 2.,The results indicated that nearby populations subjected to a wide variation in environmental conditions exhibited a similar reproductive performance. 3.,Age distributions and sex ratios were not significantly different among populations. Age ranged from 0+ to 4+ years but the populations were dominated by the 0+ to 2+ groups. In all rivers females matured at age 2+ as opposed to age 1+ and 2+ for males. Mean length at the end of the growth period differed significantly among populations. However, annual growth rate was similar among rivers and was not significantly correlated with either biomass of the benthos or water temperature during the growth season. 4.,Reproductive effort, body condition, fecundity and egg size did not correlate significantly with either the abundance of benthic invertebrates or water temperature. Once the effect of body length on both egg size and number was removed, a significant negative correlation was found between these two traits among populations. [source] On the Interaction of Risk and Time Preferences: An Experimental StudyGERMAN ECONOMIC REVIEW, Issue 3 2001Vital Anderhub Experimental studies of risk and time preference typically focus on one of the two phenomena. The goal of this paper is to investigate the (possible) correlation between subjects' attitude to risk and their time preference. For this sake we ask 61 subjects to price a simple lottery in three different scenarios. At the first, the lottery premium is paid ,now'. At the second, it is paid ,later'. At the third, it is paid ,even later,. By comparing the certainty equivalents offered by the subjects for the three lotteries, we test how time and risk preferences are interrelated. Since the time interval between ,now' and ,later' is the same as between ,later' and ,even later', we also test the hypothesis of hyperbolic discounting. The main result is a statistically significant negative correlation between subjects' degrees of risk aversion and their (implicit) discount factors. Moreover, we show that the negative correlation is independent of the method used to elicit certainty equivalents (willingness to pay versus willingness to accept). [source] Differential effects of past climate warming on mountain and flatland species distributions: a multispecies North American mammal assessmentGLOBAL ECOLOGY, Issue 1 2007Robert Guralnick ABSTRACT Aim, The magnitude of predicted range shifts during climate change is likely to be different for species living in mountainous environments compared with those living in flatland environments. The southern edges of ranges in mountain species may not shift northwards during warming as populations instead migrate up available elevational gradients; overall latitudinal range appears therefore to expand. In contrast, flatland species should shift range centroids northwards but not expand or contract their latitudinal range extent. These hypotheses were tested utilizing Late Pleistocene and modern occurrence data. Location, North America. Methods, The location and elevation of modern and Late Pleistocene species occurrences were collected from data bases for 26 species living in mountain or flatland environments. Regressions of elevation change over latitude, and southern and northern range edges were calculated for each species for modern and fossil data sets. A combination of regressions and anovas were used to test whether flatland species shift range edges and latitudinal extents more than mountain species do. Results, Flatland species had significantly larger northward shifts at southern range edges than did mountain-dwelling species from the Late Pleistocene to the present. There was also a significant negative correlation between the amount of change in the latitude of the southern edge of the range and the amount of elevational shifting from the Late Pleistocene to the present. Although significant, only c. 25% of the variance could be explained by this relationship. In addition, there was a weak indication that overall range expansion was less in flatland-dwelling than in mountain-dwelling species. Main conclusions, The approach used here was to examine past species' range responses to warming that occurred after the last ice ages as a means to better predict potential future responses to continued warming. The results confirm predictions of differential southern edge and overall range shifts for species occupying mountain and flatland regions in North America. The findings may be broadly applicable in other regions, thus allowing better modelling of future range and distribution related responses. [source] Effect of recombinant human erythropoietin on insulin resistance in hemodialysis patientsHEMODIALYSIS INTERNATIONAL, Issue 3 2009Essam KHEDR Abstract Insulin resistance is a characteristic feature of uremia. Insulin resistance and concomitant hyperinsulinemia are present irrespective of the type of renal disease. Treatment with recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEPO) was said to be associated with improvement in insulin sensitivity in uremic patients. The aim of this study was to compare insulin resistance in adult uremic hemodialysis (HD) patients including diabetic patients treated with or without rHuEPO. A total of 59 HD patients were studied, patients were divided into 2 groups of subjects: 30 HD patients on regular rHuEPO treatment (group A), and 29 HD patients not receiving rHuEPO (group B) diabetic patients were not excluded. Full medical history and clinical examination, hematological parameters, lipid profile, serum albumin, parathyroid horomone, Kt/V, fasting glucose, and insulin levels were measured in all subjects. Homeostasis Model Assessment of Insulin Resistance (HOMA-IR) was used to compare insulin resistance. The results of this study showed that the mean insulin level of HD patients treated with rHuEPO (group A) (17.5 ± 10.6 ,U/mL) was significantly lower than patients without rHuEPO (group B) (28.8 ± 7.7 ,U/mL), (P<0.001). Homeostasis Model Assessment of Insulin Resistance levels in group A were significantly lower than in group B (3.8 ± 2.97, 7.98 ± 4.9, respectively, P<0.001). Insulin resistance reflected by HOMA-IR levels among diabetic patients in group A was significantly lower than among diabetic patients in group B (3.9 ± 3.2, 9.4 ± 7.2, respectively, P<0.001). Also, HOMA-IR levels among nondiabetic patients in group A were significantly lower than among nondiabetic patients in group B (3.7 ± 2.85, 6.9 ± 1.43, respectively, P<0.01). We found a statistically significant negative correlation between duration of erythropoietin treatment, fasting blood glucose, insulin levels, and insulin resistance (r=,0.62, ,0.71, and ,0.57, P<0.001). Patients treated with rHuEPO showed less insulin resistance compared with patients not treated with rHuEPO in diabetic and nondiabetic patients and, duration of erythropoietin treatment is negatively correlated with insulin levels and insulin resistance in HD patients. [source] Pulse Pressure Determinants in Chronic Hemodialysis PatientsHEMODIALYSIS INTERNATIONAL, Issue 1 2003V Kovacic Introduction: Hypertension contributes to the cardiovascular morbidity in patients undergoing chronic hemodialysis therapy (PCHD). Pulse pressure (PP) was recognized as a correlate of mortality in PCHD. In order to demonstrate determinants of predialysis and postdialysis PP values in a group of PCHD, we conducted this study. Subjects and methods: Study subjects were 23 PCHD. Study time was 15 months. One hundred thirty six single hemodialysis (HD) treatments were processed. PP was computed as systolic-diastolic blood pressure (mmHg). Statistical methods used were Student's t test for independent data, multivariate analysis of variance, Pearson's correlation, and forward stepwise multiple regression analysis. Results: Postdialysis and predialysis PPs differed significantly (65.51 ± 19.00 vs. 60.55 ± 19.35, p = 0.002). We did not find gender differences in PP before and after HD. PP before HD was in negative correlation with phosphorus concentration (r = , 0.244, p = 0.002), parathyroid hormone (PTH)(r = , 0.177, p = 0.020), hemoglobin (r = , 0.301, p < 0.001), single HD duration (r = , 0.162, p = 0.030), ultrafiltration rate per HD (r = , 0.290, p = 0.001), years on the chronic hemodialysis treatment (r = , 0.261, p = 0.001) and ultrafiltration volume/dry body mass ratio (UF/W)(r = , 0.222, p = 0.005) and in positive concentration with weekly erythropoietin (r = 0.391, p < 001) and age (r = 0.285, p < 0.001). PP after HD was in significant negative correlation with phosphorus concentration (r = , 0.205, p = 0.009), PTH (r = , 0.187, p = 0.015), hemoglobin (r = , 0.238, p = 0.005), ultrafiltration per HD (r = , 0.370, p < 0.001), dry body mass index (r = , 0.225, p = 0.003), years of the chronic hemodialysis treatment (r = 0.330, p < 0.001), UF/W (r = , 0.340, p < 0.001) and in positive concentration with weekly erythropoietin (r = 0.361, p < 0.001) and age (r = 0.227, p = 0.004). Multiple regression analyses unveiled the strongest and negative correlations between PP after HD and UF/W ratio (, = , 0.41, p < 0.001). The strongest, but positive correlation was found between PP before HD and erythropoietin per week (, = 0.51, p < 0.001). Conclusion: Determinants of the pre/post PP values are similar. Ultrafiltration is a strong predictor of postdialysis PP value. [source] Rainfall patterns and critical values associated with landslides in Povoação County (São Miguel Island, Azores): relationships with the North Atlantic OscillationHYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES, Issue 4 2008Rui Marques Abstract São Miguel Island (Azores) has been affected by hundreds of destructive landslide episodes in the last five centuries, triggered either by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or rainfall episodes, which were responsible for many deaths and very important economic losses. Among the instability causes, meteorological factors are of primary importance on Povoação County, namely the high recurrence rate of calamitous rainfall triggering landslides. The most recent catastrophic episode took place on the 31st October 1997 when almost 1000 soil slips and debris flows were triggered, and 29 people died in the Ribeira Quente village. The role of rainfall on regional landslide activity was analysed applying cumulative rainfall methods. The method comprises the reconstruction of both absolute and calibrated antecedent rainfalls associated with each major landslide event. The critical rainfall combination (amount-duration) responsible for each landslide event was assessed and a rainfall critical threshold for landslide occurrence was calculated. Rainfall-triggered landslides in the study area are ruled by the function I = 144·06 D,0·5551, and they are related both to short duration precipitation events (1,3 days) with high average intensity (between 78 and 144 mm/day) and long-lasting rainfall episodes (1,5 months) with a lower intensity (between 9 and 22 mm/day). The impact of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) on the regional precipitation regime was evaluated. It is shown that the monthly precipitation of São Miguel is largely modulated by the NAO mode presenting a significant negative correlation with the NAO index. This result arises from the NAO control on the travelling latitude of most storm tracks that cross the Northern Atlantic Ocean. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Expression of negative affect during face-to-face interaction: a double video study of young infants' sensitivity to social contingencyINFANT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT, Issue 3 2006Hanne C. Braarud Abstract The purpose was to assess infants' sensitivity to social contingency, taking affective state into account, during face-to-face interaction with the mother in a double video set-up. Infants' behaviour during three sequences of live face-to-face interaction were compared to two sequences where the interaction between the infant and the mother was set out of phase, by presenting either the infant or the mother with a replay of their partners' behaviour during earlier live interaction. We found a significant negative correlation between the infant's degree of negative affect and the average time of looking at the mother during the live sequences. A median split was calculated to separate the infants into a high-negative-affect group and a low-negative-affect group on the basis of their emotional responses during the experiment. The low-negative-affect infants looked significantly more at their mothers than other foci during the live but not the replay sequences, while the high-negative-affect infants did not show this difference. The results suggest that 2,4-month old infants are able to distinguish between experimental distortion of contingent aspects in live and replay sequences, but that this effect of the replay condition may not be shown by moderate to highly distressed infants. Our findings underline the importance of taking infants' emotional state into account in experiments intended to assess their capacity for intersubjective communication. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Parental capacities for triadic relationships during pregnancy: Early predictors of children's behavioral and representational functioning at preschool ageINFANT MENTAL HEALTH JOURNAL, Issue 1 2005Kai von Klitzing This study examines associations between parental capacities for triadic (mother,father,child) relationships, assessed prenatally, and the representational and behavioral functioning of their offspring at preschool age. Thirty-eight parental couples were given an intensive psychodynamic interview during their first pregnancy to assess how they anticipated their future parenthood and their relationships as threesomes (mother,father,child). The capacity for triadic relationships ("triadic capacity") was defined as the capacity of fathers and mothers to anticipate their family relationships without excluding either themselves or their partners from the relationship with the infant. Four years later, the representational and behavioral functioning of their children were assessed in depth using child narrative interviews and parental behavior ratings. The coherence of the children's narratives and the number of positive themes they expressed were significantly negatively correlated with the number of behavioral problems. In the longitudinal analyses, there were significant positive correlations between the parental triadic capacities and the coherence/number of positive themes in the children's narratives whereas parental triadic capacities showed a significant negative correlation with the number of the children's externalizing problems. The significance of triadic relational family processes for the development of children's representational world and behavioral functioning is discussed. ©2005 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health. [source] Atmospheric moisture budget over Antarctica and the Southern Ocean based on the ERA-40 reanalysisINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLIMATOLOGY, Issue 15 2008Hanna Tietäväinen Abstract The atmospheric moisture budget over Antarctica and the Southern Ocean was analysed for the period 1979,2001 on the basis of the ERA-40 reanalysis of the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts. Meridional transport by transient eddies makes the largest contribution to the southward water vapour transport. The mean meridional circulation contributes to the northward transport in the Antarctic coastal areas, but this effect is compensated by the southward transport by stationary eddies. The convergence of meridional water vapour transport is at its largest at 64,68°S, while the convergence of zonal transport is regionally important in areas of high cyclolysis. Inter-annual variations in water vapour transport are related to the southern annular mode (SAM). The eastward transport has a significant (95% confidence level) positive correlation with the SAM index, while the northward transport has a significant negative correlation with SAM near 60°S. Hydrological balance is well-achieved in the ERA-40 reanalysis: the difference between the water vapour flux convergence (based on analysis) and the net precipitation (precipitation minus evaporation, based on 24-h forecasts) is only 13 mm yr,1 (3%) over the Southern Ocean and , 8 mm yr,1 (5%) over the continental ice sheet. Over the open ocean, the analysis methodology favours the accuracy of the flux convergence. For the whole study region, the annual mean flux convergence exceeded net precipitation by 11 mm yr,1 (3%). The ERA-40 result for the mean precipitation over the Antarctic continental ice sheet in 1979,2001 is 177 ± 8 mm yr,1, while previous estimates range from 173 to 215 mm yr,1. For the period 1979,2001, the ERA-40 data do not show any statistically significant trend in precipitation over the Antarctic grounded ice sheet and ice shelves. From the ERA-40 data, the annual average net evaporation (evaporation minus condensation) is positive over the whole continent. Copyright © 2008 Royal Meteorological Society [source] Suspended dust over southeastern Mediterranean and its relation to atmospheric circulationsINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLIMATOLOGY, Issue 7 2008Uri Dayan Abstract The Middle East deserts are often subjected to dust, which reduces horizontal visibility to 5 km, and sometimes even to < 1 km. The present study examines the annual and inter-annual occurrences of dust events based on 37 years of visibility observations from Hazerim (near Beer Sheba) correlated with PM10 dust concentration. The visibility data was converted to PM10 dust concentration, using concurrent data for three years. We then analyse the linkage between dust and synoptic- to global-scale weather systems. The monthly data indicate that the dust season starts in October and ends in May, with a maximum in March. More than 89% of the total annual dust is accumulated between December and May, the ,high dust season'. The annual totals vary as much as an order of magnitude from year to year. The synoptic system that produces the majority of the dust over the northern Negev is the Cyprus Low, contributing 2/3 of both the total yearly dust yield and of the number of dust observations. This suggests that a positive relationship exists between the dust in the Negev and rainfall in north Israel, both of which are generated by Cyprus Lows. Indeed, a significant (at 0.05 level) correlation of + 0.30 was found between the two. Correlation maps evidence that in dust-rich years the cyclonic activity over the Mediterranean is abnormally high and in poor-dust years it is low. A highly significant negative correlation (,0.66) was found between the dust yield and the intensity of the North Atlantic oscillation (NAO), which modulates the cyclonic activity over Europe and the northern Mediterranean. This may also imply that periods in which more dust accumulated as loess in the northern Negev may indicate the existence of negative NAO phase, and concurrently, warmer conditions over the Sahara, colder conditions over Europe and enhanced rainfall over the Mediterranean Basin. Copyright © 2007 Royal Meteorological Society [source] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||