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Scientific Hypothesis (scientific + hypothesis)
Selected AbstractsTeaching & Learning Guide for: Can a Darwinian Be a Christian?RELIGION COMPASS (ELECTRONIC), Issue 3 2008Gregory W. Dawes Author's Introduction The article was provoked by recent discussion of the so-called ,conflict thesis': the idea that the Christian faith and the findings of modern science are necessarily at odds. This thesis is generally attributed to John William Draper (1811,1882) and Andrew Dickson White (1832,1918). Recent opposition to their work dates from a 1979 publication by James Moore. Moore argues that the warfare metaphor employed by Draper and White misrepresents the historical reality, by suggesting that the religion and science debates were clashes between distinct groups of people who were sharply polarized and violently antagonistic. Since then, similar criticisms have been made by historians, such as David Livingstone, Ronald Numbers, and David Lindberg. A key question here is: what does the conflict thesis entail? If it holds that Christian thinkers have invariably opposed scientific progress, while the defenders of science have been non-believers, it would be demonstrably false. But there exist more interesting forms of conflict thesis, which are philosophical rather than historical. These suggest that there is some tension between what Christians have traditionally believed and the findings of modern science, particularly Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. Even if the two are not, strictly speaking, incompatible, the truth of one may constitute evidence against the truth of the other. Darwin's theory also undercuts traditional arguments from design, and highlights the epistemological divide between religious and scientific conceptions of authority. Online Materials The following sites contain audio and video files, as well as text and images. 1. http://www.meta-library.net/history/intro-frame.html This is a useful overview of the historical debate by Ronald Numbers, with links to other sites. Most presenters follow Moore in opposing the conflict thesis, narrowly defined, but neglect the conflicts that my article highlights. 2. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/id/program.html Here one can view an excellent, 2-h PBS television documentary on the Dover, Pennsylvania trial in December 2005 regarding the teaching of ,intelligent design' (ID) in public schools. 3. http://www.butler.edu/clergyproject/rel_evol_sun.htm This is a letter signed by more than 11,000 clergy, arguing that there is no conflict between religion and science, and encouraging (among other things) the liturgical celebration of evolution by natural selection. 4. http://www.discovery.org/csc/ At the other end of the theological spectrum, this is the website of the Discovery Institute, devoted to opposing Darwinism and promoting ,intelligent design' (ID). Controversially, it presents ID as a scientific theory, rather than a religious doctrine. 5. http://www.asa3.org/ Somewhere between the Clergy Letter Project and the Discovery Institute lies the American Scientific Affiliation (ASA). The ASA ,does not take a position when there is honest disagreement between Christians', so it embraces a variety of perspectives. Sample Syllabus The following could form the basis for a graduate seminar on religion and science, focusing on the Darwinian controversies. One could, for instance, devote two classes to each of these topics. 1. The Draper-White Thesis I recommend reading extracts from the two writers thought to be responsible for the conflict thesis, to establish what each actually said. John William Draper, The History of the Conflict between Religion and Science, International Scientific Series 13 (London: Henry S. King & Co., 1875), chap. 8. Andrew Dickson White, A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom (1896; New York, NY: Dover Publications, 1960), vol. 1, chap. 1. 2. Criticism of the Draper-White Thesis Either of the following readings from historians critical of Draper and White's work would be a useful starting point for discussion. James R. Moore, The Post-Darwinian Controversies: A Study of the Protestant Struggle to Come to Terms with Darwin in Great Britain and America, 1870,1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), chap. 1. David N. Livingstone, ,Re-placing Darwinism and Christianity', in David C. Lindberg and Ronald L. Numbers (eds.), When Science and Christianity Meet, pp. 183,202 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2003). 3. The Incompatibility Thesis Many authors attempt to show that Darwinism and Christianity and compatible. But it would be useful to examine Pope John Paul II's statement on this topic, along with some responses by biologists and philosophers. John Paul II, ,The Pope's Message on Evolution and Four Commentaries', The Quarterly Review of Biology, 72:4 (1997): 375,406. 4. The Evidential Thesis Students might enjoy reading and discussing the following article by a leading evolutionary biologist. George C. Williams, ,Mother Nature Is a Wicked Old Witch', in Matthew H. Nitecki and Doris V. Nitecki (eds.), Evolutionary Ethics, 217,31 (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1993). 5. The Replacement Thesis This is an important but often neglected book. Students would benefit from reading at least the first chapter. Neal C. Gillespie, Charles Darwin and the Problem of Creation (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1979), chap. 1. 6. The Faith and Reason Thesis The following article by a well-known historian and philosopher of science touches on some of the key issues. Ernan McMullin, ,Evolution and Special Creation', Zygon 28:3 (1993): 299,335. Focus Questions 1There exist many Christian thinkers who accept Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. Does that mean there is no conflict between Darwinism and Christianity? 2Taken at face value, Genesis 1,3 tells the story of the origins of the world and of human beings. What aspects of that story would you consider essential to the Christian faith? 3If we have an entirely natural explanation of the origins of complex living organisms, do we still have reasons to believe in a creator God? 4If God could have created complex living beings by a simple command, why would he choose a lengthy and wasteful process such as natural selection? 5Could a Christian regard the existence of God in the same way as a scientific hypothesis, that is to say, to be accepted only in so far as it is supported by the evidence? Seminar Activity I would suggest a debate, in which students sympathetic to the creationist position are asked to defend Darwin's theory, while students sympathetic to evolution are asked to argue against it. [source] Salt Marsh Restoration in Connecticut: 20 Years of Science and ManagementRESTORATION ECOLOGY, Issue 3 2002R. Scott Warren Abstract In 1980 the State of Connecticut began a tidal marsh restoration program targeting systems degraded by tidal restrictions and impoundments. Such marshes become dominated by common reed grass (Phragmites australis) and cattail (Typha angustifolia and T. latifolia), with little ecological connection to Long Island Sound. The management and scientific hypothesis was that returning tidal action, reconnecting marshes to Long Island Sound, would set these systems on a recovery trajectory. Specific restoration targets (i.e., pre-disturbance conditions or particular reference marshes) were considered unrealistic. However, it was expected that with time restored tides would return ecological functions and attributes characteristic of fully functioning tidal salt marshes. Here we report results of this program at nine separate sites within six marsh systems along 110 km of Long Island Sound shoreline, with restoration times of 5 to 21 years. Biotic parameters assessed include vegetation, macroinvertebrates, and use by fish and birds. Abiotic factors studied were soil salinity, elevation and tidal flooding, and soil water table depth. Sites fell into two categories of vegetation recovery: slow, ca. 0.5%, or fast, more than 5% of total area per year. Although total cover and frequency of salt marsh angiosperms was positively related to soil salinity, and reed grass stand parameters negatively so, fast versus slow recovery rates could not be attributed to salinity. Instead, rates appear to reflect differences in tidal flooding. Rapid recovery was characterized by lower elevations, greater hydroperiods, and higher soil water tables. Recovery of other biotic attributes and functions does not necessarily parallel those for vegetation. At the longest studied system (rapid vegetation recovery) the high marsh snail Melampus bidentatus took two decades to reach densities comparable with a nearby reference marsh, whereas the amphipod Orchestia grillus was well established on a slow-recovery marsh, reed grass dominated after 9 years. Typical fish species assemblages were found in restoration site creeks and ditches within 5 years. Gut contents of fish in ditches and on the high marsh suggest that use of restored marsh as foraging areas may require up to 15 years to reach equivalence with reference sites. Bird species that specialize in salt marshes require appropriate vegetation; on the oldest restoration site, breeding populations comparable with reference marshland had become established after 15 years. Use of restoration sites by birds considered marsh generalists was initially high and was still nearly twice that of reference areas even after 20 years. Herons, egrets, and migratory shorebirds used restoration areas extensively. These results support our prediction that returning tides will set degraded marshes on trajectories that can bring essentially full restoration of ecological functions. This can occur within two decades, although reduced tidal action can delay restoration of some functions. With this success, Connecticut's Department of Environmental Protection established a dedicated Wetland Restoration Unit. As of 1999 tides have been restored at 57 separate sites along the Connecticut coast. [source] Translational Research: Animal Models of Obliterative Bronchiolitis after Lung TransplantationAMERICAN JOURNAL OF TRANSPLANTATION, Issue 9 2009M. Sato Obliterative bronchiolitis (OB) or chronic graft dysfunction remains the major limitation to long-term success of lung transplantation. Investigation using animal models is a critical component of research to understand the underlying pathological mechanisms and to develop novel preventive and therapeutic strategies for OB. Multiple animal models of OB exist, including orthotopic lung transplantation in rodents and large animals, orthotopic tracheal transplantation and heterotopic transplantation of a trachea in variable sites such as subcutaneous, intraomental and intrapulmonary sites. The most important issue for researchers is not specifically which model is the best but which is the most appropriate model to test their scientific hypothesis. For example, while orthotopic lung transplantation best mimics the overall surgical procedure, a question regarding fibrotic processes of OB may be better answered using heterotopic tracheal transplant models because of their reliable reproducibility of allograft obliterative airway fibrosis. Animal models should be continuously refined, modified and sometimes combined to fit the particular research purpose. We review the available animal models, their modifications and possible applications to assist researchers in choosing the appropriate model for their intended research. [source] INDUCTIVE RISK AND JUSTICE IN KIDNEY ALLOCATIONBIOETHICS, Issue 8 2010ANDREA SCARANTINO ABSTRACT How should UNOS deal with the presence of scientific controversies on the risk factors for organ rejection when designing its allocation policies? The answer I defend in this paper is that the more undesirable the consequences of making a mistake in accepting a scientific hypothesis, the higher the degree of confirmation required for its acceptance. I argue that the application of this principle should lead to the rejection of the hypothesis that ,less than perfect' Human Leucocyte Antigen (HLA) matches are an important determinant of kidney graft survival. The scientific community has been divided all along on the significance of partial antigen matches. Yet reliance on partial matches has emerged as one of the primary factors leading blacks to spend a much longer time than whites on the waiting list for kidneys, thereby potentially impacting the justice of the kidney allocation policy. My case study illustrates one of the legitimate roles non-epistemic values can play in science and calls into question the ideal of a value-free science. [source] | ||||||||||