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Avian Predators (avian + predator)

Distribution by Scientific Domains

Life Sciences	90%

Selected Abstracts

Spatio-temporal shifts in gradients of habitat quality for an opportunistic avian predator

ECOGRAPHY, Issue 2 2003
Fabrizio Sergio
We used the conceptual framework of the theory of natural selection to study breeding habitat preferences by an opportunistic avian predator, the black kite Milvus migrans. In Europe, black kite populations are mostly found near large networks of aquatic habitats, usually considered optimal for foraging and breeding. We hypothesized that proximity to wetlands could vary among individuals and affect their fitness, and thus be subject to natural selection. We tested the hypothesis first on a population on Lake Lugano (Italian pre-Alps) which has been monitored for nine years, and then on seven other populations, each studied for four,five years, located along a continuum of habitat from large water bodies to scarce aquatic habitat of any kind. In the Lake Lugano population, black kite abundance was negatively related to distance to the lake in all the nine years of study, consistent with long-term natural selection. There was evidence of ongoing directional selection on strategic nest location in three of the years, and evidence of stabilizing selection in two years. In eight of the nine years the trend was for a linear increase in fitness with increasing proximity to the lake. At the population level, results were consistent with adaptive habitat choice in relation to the previous year's spatial variation in fitness: higher associations between fitness and distance to the lake (i.e. higher selection gradients) resulted in higher density variations in the following year, in turn related to the availability of fish, the main local prey. The progressive decline of inland pairs and increase in the density of lakeshore pairs caused a directional long-term trend of declining mean distance to the lake. Breeding near aquatic habitats was associated with higher foraging success, and higher frequency and biomass of prey deliveries to offspring. There was weak evidence of selection in other populations. The inland-wetland gradient of habitat quality may have been affected by predation risk, as estimated by density of a major predator of adults and nestlings, the eagle owl Bubo bubo. Behavioral decisions at the level of the individual probably translated into population effects on density and distribution at various spatial scales. Populations in optimal habitats showed higher density and produced six times as many young per unit space as those in sub-optimal habitats. [source]

Contrasting effects of the extent of sea-ice on the breeding performance of an Antarctic top predator, the Snow Petrel Pagodroma nivea

JOURNAL OF AVIAN BIOLOGY, Issue 4 2001
Christophe Barbraud
Recent studies have shown that the Antarctic Circumpolar Wave and the related sea-ice cover around the Antarctic continent may have a profound effect on the lower trophic levels of the marine environment. In particular, extensive sea-ice cover enhances the survival of krill. However, the effects of sea-ice cover on top predators remain poorly understood. Using time series from 1973 to 1999, we examine the influence of regional sea-ice extent on a number of indices of breeding performance of an avian predator, the Snow Petrel, in Antarctica. The percentage of breeding pairs was highly variable and there were fewer birds breeding when sea-ice cover was extensive during July. By contrast, overall breeding success and fledgling body condition were improved during years with extensive sea-ice cover during the preceding November and July,September. These results indicate that the same sea-ice conditions may have different effects on the breeding performance of a species. The overall increase in winter sea-ice extent during the last decade appears to have resulted in an overall improvement of the quality of fledglings produced, and thus probably of future recruitment. [source]

Does Pond Water Reflectance Influence Double-crested Cormorant Selection of Aquaculture Ponds?

JOURNAL OF THE WORLD AQUACULTURE SOCIETY, Issue 3 2010
Andrew A. Radomski
Double-crested cormorants, Phalacrocorax auritus, are a frequent and major avian predator on channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, and other aquaculture species throughout the southeastern USA. Although cormorant movements and occurrence within the aquaculture production region are understood, no studies have focused on the mechanisms utilized by these avian predators to select foraging sites within these high-density aquaculture systems. The objective of this study was to determine if cormorant abundance is associated with specific (ultraviolet to visible) light reflectance spectra within commercial catfish ponds. Three commercial farms were used in this study; each farm had four ponds classified as "preferred" and another four ponds classified as "avoided" based on observing cormorant numbers for 3 mo prior to reflectance measures (>100 h observation for each pond). Reflectance and pond turbidity were measured weekly for 7 wk during the period of maximal over-wintering cormorant numbers. Water samples were collected at the surface (1 cm depth) and secchi depth (10,41 cm) at two locations (upwind and downwind sides) within each pond to determine spectral reflectance and turbidity. Average pond reflectance values were not significantly different between ponds preferred and avoided by cormorants; however, upwind reflectance significantly differed from downwind reflectance between cormorant use groups. Using cross-validation discriminant analysis, the accuracy of separating upwind ponds preferred and avoided by cormorants was over 62%. Repeated measures ANOVA identified the reflectance at 370, 380, 460, 500, 510, and 620 nm as significantly different between ponds preferred and avoided by cormorants. The lower wavelengths (380,410 nm) correspond to known UV-A sensing compounds in cormorants and the other wavelengths share characteristics associated with algal biomass. Cormorants utilize ponds that have lower algal biomass when compared with avoided ponds. [source]

Prey availability influences habitat tolerance: an explanation for the rarity of peregrine falcons in the tropics

ECOGRAPHY, Issue 3 2001
Andrew R. Jenkins
The density and productivity of peregrine falconFalco peregrinus populations correlate positively with distance from the Equator, while habitat specificity increases with proximity to the Equator. Low peregrine densities in the tropics may he a result of competition with similar conveners (e.g. the lanner falcon F. biarmicus in Africa), which replace them in many areas. Alternatively, tropical peregrines may he limited by resource deficiencies that do not affect their close relatives. Data from peregrine and lanner populations in South Africa support the resource deficiency hypothesis, and there is no evidence to suggest direct competition between the two species. In areas where prey are not spatially or temporally concentrated, or otherwise particularly vulnerable to attack, morphological and behavioural specializations of peregrines probably restrict them to optimal foraging conditions. The relative dynamics of.Arctic and temperate vs tropical prey populations is suggested as an important factor determining peregrine distribution globally. Populations of other widespread hut particularly specialized avian predators (e.g. osprey Pandion haliaetus) may he similarly controlled. Food limitation (in terms of a dearth of particularly vulnerable prey) in the tropics has resulted in specialization and rarity in peregrines and generalization and relative abundance in similar congeners. [source]

Prey availability influences habitat tolerance: an explanation for the rarity of peregrine falcons in the tropics

ECOGRAPHY, Issue 3 2001
Article first published online: 30 JUN 200
The density and productivity of peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus populations correlate positively with distance from the Equator, while habitat specificity increases with proximity to the Equator. Low peregrine densities in the tropics may be a result of competition with similar congeners (e.g. the lanner falcon F. biarmicus in Africa), which replace them in many areas. Alternatively, tropical peregrines may be limited by resource deficiencies that do not affect their close relatives. Data from peregrine and lanner populations in South Africa support the resource deficiency hypothesis, and there is no evidence to suggest direct competition between the two species. In areas where prey are not spatially or temporally concentrated, or otherwise particularly vulnerable to attack, morphological and behavioural specializations of peregrines probably restrict them to optimal foraging conditions. The relative dynamics of Arctic and temperate vs tropical prey populations is suggested as an important factor determining peregrine distribution globally. Populations of other widespread but particularly specialized avian predators (e.g. osprey Pandion haliaetus) may be similarly controlled. Food limitation (in terms of a dearth of particularly vulnerable prey) in the tropics has resulted in specialization and rarity in peregrines and generalization and relative abundance in similar congeners. [source]

Importance of species interactions to community heritability: a genetic basis to trophic-level interactions

ECOLOGY LETTERS, Issue 1 2006
Joseph K. Bailey
Abstract Recent community genetics studies have shown that specific genotypes of a host plant support distinct arthropod communities. Building upon these findings, we examined the hypothesis that a trophic community consisting of cottonwood trees, a galling herbivore and avian predators could also be related to the genetics of the host tree. We found genetic correlations among phytochemistry of individual tree genotypes, the density of a galling herbivore, and the intensity of avian predation on these herbivores. We detected significant broad-sense heritability of these interactions that range from H = 0.70 to 0.83. The genetic basis of these interactions tended to increase across trophic levels suggesting that small genetic changes in the cottonwood phenotype could have major consequences at higher trophic levels affecting species interactions and energy flow. These findings show a heritable basis to trophic-level interactions indicating that there is a significant genetic basis to community composition and energy flow that is predictable by plant genotype. Our data clearly link plant genetics to patterns of avian foraging and show that species interactions are important components of community heritability and ecosystem processes. Overall, these data support the hypothesis that evolution of plant traits can alter trophic-level interactions and community composition. [source]

Effects of predator-induced visual and olfactory cues on 0+ perch (Perca fluviatilis L.) foraging behaviour

ECOLOGY OF FRESHWATER FISH, Issue 2 2006
V. N. Mikheev
Abstract,,, Foraging juvenile fish with relatively high food demands are usually vulnerable to various aquatic and avian predators. To compromise between foraging and antipredator activity, they need exact and reliable information about current predation risk. Among direct predator-induced cues, visual and olfactory signals are considered to be most important. Food intake rates and prey-size selectivity of laboratory-reared, naive young-of-the-year (YOY) perch, Perca fluviatilis, were studied in experiments with Daphnia magna of two size classes: 2.8 and 1.3 mm as prey and northern pike, Esox lucius, as predator. Neither total intake rate nor prey-size selectivity was modified by predator kairomones alone (water from an aquarium with a pike was pumped into the test aquaria) under daylight conditions. Visual presentation of pike reduced total food intake by perch. This effect was significantly more pronounced (synergistic) when visual and olfactory cues were presented simultaneously to foraging perch. Moreover, the combination of cues caused a significant shift in prey-size selection, expressed as a reduced proportion of large prey in the diet. Our observations demonstrate that predator-induced olfactory cues alone are less important modifiers of the feeding behaviour of naive YOY perch than visual cues under daylight conditions. However, pike odour acts as a modulatory stimulus enhancing the effects of visual cues, which trigger an innate response in perch. [source]

Singing in the Face of Danger: the Anomalous Type II Vocalization of the Splendid Fairy-Wren

ETHOLOGY, Issue 3 2001
Bethanne Zelano
Males of certain species of fairy-wrens (Aves: Maluridae) emit a unique vocalization, the Type II vocalization, in response to the calls of potential predators. We conducted field observations and playback experiments to identify the contexts in which the Type II vocalization is emitted by splendid fairy-wren (Malurus splendens) males, and to examine social and genetic factors that influence its occurrence. In field observations and controlled playback experiments, Type II vocalizations were elicited most consistently by calls of the predatory gray butcherbird (Cracticus torquatus). Some vocalizations from other avian species also elicited Type II vocalizations, and the majority of these were vocalizations from avian predators. Splendid fairy-wrens are cooperative breeders, and males that responded with Type II vocalizations to playbacks of butcherbird calls tended to be primary rather than secondary males, had larger cloacal protuberances, and were older than those that did not respond. In addition, secondary males that were sons of resident females were more likely than non-sons to respond with a Type II vocalization. In another playback experiment, females responded similarly to the Type I song and Type II vocalizations of their mates. Although the Type II vocalization is emitted primarily in response to predator calls, it is inconsistent with an alarm call explanation. Patterns of reproductive success among Type II calling males suggest that it does not function as an honest signal of male quality. At present, the function of the vocalization remains anomalous, but indirect fitness benefits may play a role in its explanation. [source]

EVOLUTION OF COLOR VARIATION IN DRAGON LIZARDS: QUANTITATIVE TESTS OF THE ROLE OF CRYPSIS AND LOCAL ADAPTATION

EVOLUTION, Issue 7 2004
Devi M. Stuart-Fox
Abstract Many animal species display striking color differences with respect to geographic location, sex, and body region. Traditional adaptive explanations for such complex patterns invoke an interaction between selection for conspicuous signals and natural selection for crypsis. Although there is now a substantial body of evidence supporting the role of sexual selection for signaling functions, quantitative studies of crypsis remain comparatively rare. Here, we combine objective measures of coloration with information on predator visual sensitivities to study the role of crypsis in the evolution of color variation in an Australian lizard species complex (Ctenophorus decresii). We apply a model that allows us to quantify crypsis in terms of the visual contrast of the lizards against their natural backgrounds, as perceived by potential avian predators. We then use these quantitative estimates of crypsis to answer the following questions. Are there significant differences in crypsis conspicuousness among populations? Are there significant differences in crypsis conspicuousness between the sexes? Are body regions "exposed" to visual predators more cryptic than "hidden" body regions? Is there evidence for local adaptation with respect to crypsis against different substrates? In general, our results confirmed that there are real differences in crypsis conspicuousness both between populations and between sexes; that exposed body regions were significantly more cryptic than hidden ones, particularly in females; and that females, but not males, are more cryptic against their own local background than against the background of other populations. Body regions that varied most in contrast between the sexes and between populations were also most conspicuous and are emphasized by males during social and sexual signaling. However, results varied with respect to the aspect of coloration studied. Results based on chromatic contrast ("hue' of color) provided better support for the crypsis hypothesis than did results based on achromatic contrast ("brightness' of color). Taken together, these results support the view that crypsis plays a substantial role in the evolution of color variation and that color patterns represent a balance between the need for conspicuousness for signaling and the need for crypsis to avoid predation. [source]

Wood thrush nest success and post-fledging survival across a temporal pulse of small mammal abundance in an oak forest

JOURNAL OF ANIMAL ECOLOGY, Issue 4 2008
Kenneth A. Schmidt
Summary 1Synchronized mass production of seed crops, such as acorns, produces a resource pulse that may have far-reaching consequences for songbird populations through its effects on avian predators. Seed production in these forests represents only the first of several pulsed events. Secondary pulses emerge as mast-consuming rodents numerically respond to seed production and tertiary pulses emerge as generalist predators, such as raptors, numerically respond to rodents. In turn, these two groups reduce nest productivity and juvenile survivorship 1 and 2 years, respectively, after the initial pulse in seed production. 2At our study site in south-eastern New York, USA, autumn acorn abundance (primary pulse) largely determines rodent abundance (secondary pulse) the following spring. We tested the hypotheses that the population dynamics of a shrub-nesting passerine (wood thrush Hylocichla mustelina), is influenced by rodents through the: (a) direct effect of predation by rodents; (b) indirect effect of rodents on the abundance of raptors (tertiary pulse); and (c) indirect effect of rodent abundance on raptor diet. The latter specifically hypothesizes that a crash in the rodent population in the wake of region-wide failure of acorn production leads to an extreme diet shift in raptors that increases post-fledging mortality in birds. 3We conducted a 3-year study to examine variation in wood thrush nest success and fledgling survival, using radio telemetry, across a pulse of rodent abundance (i.e. low, medium and high). We also updated and reanalysed regional wood thrush population growth rates as a function of the annual variation in rodent abundance. 4Fledgling survivorship, but not nest success, varied in relation to annual rodent abundance. Raptors and eastern chipmunks Tamias striatus were the most commonly identified predators on fledglings. Fledgling survivorship was greatest at intermediate rodent abundance consistent with a shift in raptor diet. Regional rate of wood thrush population growth showed a unimodal relationship with rodent abundance, peaking during years with intermediate rodent abundance. This unimodal pattern was due to wood thrush population growth rates near or below zero during rodent population crashes. 5The telemetry study, pattern of regional abundance and synchronized population dynamics of coexisting thrushes suggest a common mechanism of behavioural changes in raptors in response to declines in rodent prey, which in turn affects thrush population dynamics. [source]

Spatial synchrony in field vole Microtus agrestis abundance in a coniferous forest in northern England: the role of vole-eating raptors

JOURNAL OF APPLIED ECOLOGY, Issue 2000
S.J. Petty
1.,The regional synchrony hypothesis (RSH) states that synchrony in microtine abundance over large geographical areas is caused by nomadic avian predators that specialize on small mammals for food. This has proved a difficult hypothesis to test because experiments at an appropriate scale are almost impossible. 2.,We used the decline of the most abundant, nomadic vole-eating raptors in an extensive conifer forest in northern England (Kielder Forest) as a natural experiment to evaluate their influence on synchronizing voles at different spatial scales. Field vole populations fluctuated on a 3,4-year cycle of abundance, similar to the periodicity in central Fennoscandia. 3.,Over a 23-year period, the combined numbers and density of kestrels and short-eared owls significantly declined. If these raptors were responsible for synchronizing vole abundance, the decline should have been associated with a decrease in synchrony. We could find no change in synchrony during the period of the greatest decline in kestrel and short-eared owl numbers (1980,97). 4.,In Kielder, vole abundance has been shown to change in a wave-like manner, with synchrony in the direction of the wave being 5,10-fold smaller than that reported in Fennoscandia. Tawny owls are sedentary and the most abundant vole-eating raptor in our study area, and might have an equalizing influence on vole abundance over smaller areas if they foraged in a density-dependent manner and responded functionally to increasing vole density. If this was the case, spatial variability in vole density should have been less in occupied than unoccupied owl territories, especially in years of low vole density when owls could take a larger proportion of the standing crop of voles. Even though tawny owls caught a significant proportion of the vole population, we could find no difference in variation in vole density between owl territories that were unoccupied, occupied with no breeding attempt, or occupied with a successful breeding attempt. 5.,We conclude that the small-scale synchrony in field vole abundance is unlikely to be caused by avian predators. Instead, it is more likely to be related to the pattern of clear-cutting that has developed in Kielder, which restricts vole dispersal. If this assumption is correct, we would predict more widespread synchrony in vole abundance in first-generation forests when extensive areas are planted over short periods of time, and this is supported by anecdotal evidence. These conclusions indicate that foresters may be able to manipulate the spatial dynamics of voles and vole predators by varying patch sizes within forests. [source]

Putting density dependence in perspective: nest density, nesting phenology, and biome, all matter to survival of simulated mallard Anas platyrhynchos nests

JOURNAL OF AVIAN BIOLOGY, Issue 3 2009
Johan Elmberg
Breeding success in ground-nesting birds is primarily determined by nest survival, which may be density-dependent, but the generality of this pattern remains untested. In a replicated crossover experiment conducted on 30 wetlands, survival of simulated mallard nests was related to "biome" (n=14 mediterranean and 16 boreal wetlands), breeding "phenology" (early vs late nests), and "density" (2 vs 8 nests per 225 m shoreline). Local abundances of "waterfowl", "other waterbirds", and "avian predators" were used as covariates. We used an information-theoretic approach and Program MARK to select among competing models. Nest survival was lower in late nests compared with early ones, and it was lower in the mediterranean than in the boreal study region. High-density treatment nests suffered higher depredation rates than low-density nests during days 1,4 of each experimental period. Nest survival was negatively associated with local abundance of "waterfowl" in the boreal but not in the mediterranean biome. Effect estimates from the highest-ranked model showed that nest "density" (d 1,4) had the strongest impact on model fit; i.e. three times that of "biome" and 1.5 times that of "phenology". The latter,s effect, in turn, was twice that of "biome". We argue that our study supports the idea that density-dependent nest predation may be temporally and spatially widespread in waterfowl. We also see an urgent need for research of how waterfowl nesting phenology is matched to that of prey and vegetation. [source]

Nest predators of Lance-tailed Manakins on Isla Boca Brava, Panamá

JOURNAL OF FIELD ORNITHOLOGY, Issue 2 2009
Jennifer L. Reidy
ABSTRACT Nest predation is often the primary cause of nest failure for passerines. Despite this, little is known about predation rates and the nest predators of birds in the tropics. I used video cameras to monitor seven Lance-tailed Manakin (Chiroxiphia lanceolata) nests on Isla Boca Brava, Panamá. One nest fledged young and six nests failed due to predation. I recorded five predation events involving four avian predators and one mammalian predator. Crested Oropendolas (Psarocolius decumanus) predated two nests and a Roadside Hawk (Buteo magnirostris) and a Black-chested Jay (Cyanocorax affinis) each predated one. The mammalian predator was a common opossum (Didelphis marsupialis). All avian predation was diurnal; the mammalian predation was nocturnal. My results suggest that tropical birds are subject to a diverse suite of nest predators, and that avian predators may be an important cause of nest failure at my study site. RESUMEN La depredación de nidos es usualmente la primera causa del fracaso de lo nidos de los paserinos. A pesar de esto, poco se conoce sobre la tasa de depredación y los depredadores de nidos de aves neotropicales. Yo use cámaras de video para monitorear siete nidos del Lance-tailed Manakins (Chiroxiphia lanceolata) en la isla Boca brava, Panamá. De un nido salieron polluelos y seis nidos fracasaron debido a la depredación. Yo documente cinco eventos de depredación de los cuales cuatro fueron por aves y uno por mamíferos. Crested Oropendolas (Psarocolius decumanus) depredo dos nidos y Roadside Hawk (Buteo magnirostris) y el Black-chested Jay (Cyanocorax affinis) depredaron uno cada uno. El depredador mamífero fue un marsupial común (Didelphis marsupialis). Todas las depredaciones de aves fueron diurnas y la del mamífero fue nocturna. Mis resultados sugieren que las aves neotropicales están sujetas a una diversa gama de depredadores de nidos y posiblemente la depredación por aves puede ser una causa importante del fracaso de las nidadas en mi lugar de estudio. [source]

Does Pond Water Reflectance Influence Double-crested Cormorant Selection of Aquaculture Ponds?

Dietary conservatism may facilitate the initial evolution of aposematism

OIKOS, Issue 3 2003
R. J. Thomas
It has generally been assumed that warningly coloured organisms pay a cost associated with their increased visibility, because naïve predators notice and eat them. This cost is offset by their enhanced protection from educated predators who associate the colour pattern with unprofitability. However, some studies have suggested that avoidance of novel prey by avian predators ("dietary conservatism") can actually place novel colour morphs at a selective advantage over familiar ones, even when they are highly conspicuous. To test this idea, we experimentally simulated the appearance of a single novel-coloured mutant in small populations (20 individuals) of palatable artificial prey. The colour morph frequencies in each "generation" were determined by the relative survival of the previous generation under predation by birds. We used wild-caught European robins Erithacus rubecula foraging on pastry "prey" of different colours. The aim was to test whether prey selection by predators prevented or facilitated the novel colour morph persisting in the prey population over successive generations. We found that the novel colour morph quickly increased to fixation in 14/40 prey "populations", and at least once each in 8 of the 10 birds tested. Novel mutants of the classic aposematic colours (red and yellow) reached fixation most frequently, but even the green and blue novel morphs both increased to fixation in 2/40 trials. Novel colours reached fixation significantly faster than could be accounted for by drift, indicating active avoidance by the birds. These results suggest that a novel colour morph arising in a prey population can persist and increase under the selective pressure imposed by predators, even to the local exclusion of the original morph, despite being fully palatable. The consequences of this finding are discussed in relation to receiver psychology, the evolution of aposematism and the existence of polymorphism in Müllerian mimics. [source]

The role of size and colour pattern in protection of developmental stages of the red firebug (Pyrrhocoris apterus) against avian predators

BIOLOGICAL JOURNAL OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY, Issue 4 2010
MILENA PROKOPOVÁ
We investigated how predator/prey body-size ratio and prey colour pattern affected efficacy of prey warning signals. We used great and blue tits (Parus major and Cyanistes caeruleus), comprising closely related and ecologically similar bird species differing in body size, as experimental predators. Two larval instars and adults of the unpalatable red firebug (Pyrrhocoris apterus), differing in body size and/or coloration, were used as prey. We showed that prey body size did not influence whether a predator attacked the prey or not during the first encounter. However, smaller prey were attacked, killed, and eaten more frequently in repetitive encounters. We assumed that body size influences the predator through the amount of repellent chemicals better than through the amount of optical warning signal. The larger predator attacked, killed and ate all forms of firebug more often than the smaller one. The difference between both predators was more pronounced in less protected forms of firebug (chemically as well as optically). Colour pattern also substantially affected the willingness of predators to attack the prey. Larval red,black coloration did not provide a full-value warning signal, although a similarly conspicuous red-black coloration of the adults reliably protected them. © 2010 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2010, 100, 890,898. [source]

What constitutes optical warning signals of ladybirds (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) towards bird predators: colour, pattern or general look?

BIOLOGICAL JOURNAL OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY, Issue 1 2009
MICHAELA DOLENSKÁ
Most ladybirds (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) possess chemical protection against predators and signal its presence by less or more conspicuous coloration, which can be considered as a warning. Most ladybirds possess a dotted pattern, althougn the number, shape, and size of the spots, as well as their colour, varies considerably. Almost all ladybirds have a characteristic general appearance (body shape). We considered these traits to be used in ladybird recognition by avian predators. In the present study, we compared the reactions of avian predators (Parus major) caught in the wild, to four differently coloured ladybird beetles (Coccinella septempunctata, Exochomus quadripustulatus, Subcoccinella vigintiquatuorpunctata, and Cynegetis impunctata) and two artificial modifications of C. septempunctata; the first was deprived of their elytral spotted pattern by painting it brown, the other had their elytra removed (i.e. altering their general ladybird appearance). Ladybirds with a spotted pattern were attacked less frequently than unspotted ones. Ladybirds with removed elytra were attacked much more often than any ladybird with a preserved general appearance. The results obtained in the present study suggest the high importance of the spotted pattern as well as general appearance in the ladybird recognition process. Additional experiments with naïve birds (hand-reared P. major) demonstrated the innateness of the aversion to two differently spotted ladybird species (C. septempunctata and Scymnus frontalis). © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2009, 98, 234,242. [source]

The role of eyespots as anti-predator mechanisms, principally demonstrated in the Lepidoptera

BIOLOGICAL REVIEWS, Issue 4 2005
Martin Stevens
ABSTRACT Eyespots are found in a variety of animals, in particular lepidopterans. The role of eyespots as antipredator mechanisms has been discussed since the 19th Century, with two main hypotheses invoked to explain their occurrence. The first is that large, centrally located eyespots intimidate predators by resembling the eyes of the predators' own enemies; the second, though not necessarily conflicting, hypothesis is that small, peripherally located eyespots function as markers to deflect the attacks of predators to non-vital regions of the body. A third possibility is also proposed; that eyespots intimidate predators merely because they are novel or rarely encountered salient features. These hypotheses are reviewed, with special reference given to avian predators, since these are likely to be the principal visually hunting predators of the lepidopterans considered. Also highlighted is the necessity to consider the potential influence of sexual selection on lepidopteran wing patterns, and the genetics and development of eyespot formation. [source]

Escape Behavior of Neotropical Homopterans in Response to a Flush,Pursuit Predator

BIOTROPICA, Issue 4 2004
Mark L. Galatowitsch
ABSTRACT Insect defenses against avian predators often include both a primary defense that reduces the probability of being attacked and a secondary defense, typically escape behavior, employed if the primary defense fails. Escape behavior, however, can make insects potentially vulnerable to specialized flush,pursuit predators. Neotropical Redstarts of the genus Myioborus (Parulidae) exploit insect escape behavior by using their contrasting black-and-white plumage and animated foraging behavior to startle insect prey that are then pursued and captured in flight. We examined how insect primary defense strategy and natural variation in Myioborus plumage pattern influence escape behavior in six species of homopterans from Monteverde, Costa Rica. The six homopterans included two aposematic species of the family Cercopidae (Ocoaxo sp. and Sphenorhina sp.), two cryptic species of the family Cixiidae (both Bothriocera spp.), and two structurally defended species of the family Membracidae (Camfylocentrus sp. and Vestistilus variabilis). We measured the distance at which models of Myioborus Redstarts elicited escape behavior in insects under field conditions. Response distances varied significantly with both homopteran primary defense and Myioborus plumage pattern. Structurally defended homopterans were the most sensitive to the models and cryptic homopterans were the least sensitive. The model simulating the plumage of endemic M. miniatus comptus of Costa Rica elicited greater responses than did models of other Myioborus taxa with either less or more white in the plumage. Our results suggest that (1) primary defense strategies can have a significant effect on insect vulnerability to flush-pursuit predators, and (2) geographic variation in the plumage pattern of Myioborus Redstarts may reflect adaptation to regional prey and habitat characteristics that maximizes flush-pursuit foraging performance. RESUMEN Las defensas de los insectos contra aves depredadoras, frecuentemente incluye dos tipos de defensa: una primaria, que disminuye la probabilidad de ser atacado, y una defensa secundaria tipica de comportamiento de escape, la cual es empleada si falla la defensa primaria. Sin embargo, el comportamiento de escape puede ocasionar que los insectos scan potencialmente vulnerables a depredadores especializados en vuelo y persecusión. Los colirrojos neotropicales del género Myioborus (Parulidae) explotan el comportamiento de escape de los insectos usando su plumaje contrastante bianco-negro, y su comportamiento de forrajeo animado para sobresaltar a los insectos a cazar, que luego son perseguidos y capturados en vuelo. Nosotros examinamos cómo la defensa primaria de insectos y la variación natural del plumaje en Myioborus influye en el comportamiento de escape en seis especies de homópteros de Monteverde, Costa Rica. Los seis homópteros estudiados incluyeron dos especies conspicuas de la familia Cercopidae (Ocoaxo esp. y Sphenorhina esp.), dos especies enigmáticas de la familia Cixiidae (ambos Bothriocera esp.), y dos especies de la familia Membracidae (Campylocentrus esp. y Vestistilus variabilis) que se defienden estructuralmente. Nosotros medimos la distancia en la cual los modelos colirrojos de Myioborus provocan el comportamiento de escape en insectos bajo de condiciones de campo. Las respuestas a las distancias variaron significativamente en ambas, en defensa primaria de los homópteros y el partón del plumaje de los Myioborus. Los homópteros que se defienden estructuralmente fueron los más vulnerables a los modelos, y los homópteros enigmáticos los menos vulnerables. El modelo simulando el plumaje del colirrojo M. miniatus comptus endémico de Costa Rica, produjo mayor respuesta que los otros modelos Myioborus de otras taxas con menos o más color bianco en su plumaje. Los resultados de este estudio sugieren que: (1) las defensas de estrategia primaria pueden tener un efecto significative en la vulnerabilidad de los insectos a los depredadores que vuelan y persiguen; y (2) la variación geografica en el partón del plumaje de los Myioborus colirrojos puede indicar adaptaciones a presas por regiones y a caracteristicas del hábitat que maximizan su habilidad de volar y perseguir. [source]