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Sample Area (sample + area)
Selected AbstractsBIODIVERSITY RESEARCH: Native-exotic species richness relationships across spatial scales and biotic homogenization in wetland plant communities of Illinois, USADIVERSITY AND DISTRIBUTIONS, Issue 5 2010Hua Chen Abstract Aim, To examine native-exotic species richness relationships across spatial scales and corresponding biotic homogenization in wetland plant communities. Location, Illinois, USA. Methods, We analysed the native-exotic species richness relationship for vascular plants at three spatial scales (small, 0.25 m2 of sample area; medium, 1 m2 of sample area; large, 5 m2 of sample area) in 103 wetlands across Illinois. At each scale, Spearman's correlation coefficient between native and exotic richness was calculated. We also investigated the potential for biotic homogenization by comparing all species surveyed in a wetland community (from the large sample area) with the species composition in all other wetlands using paired comparisons of their Jaccard's and Simpson's similarity indices. Results, At large and medium scales, native richness was positively correlated with exotic richness, with the strength of the correlation decreasing from the large to the medium scale; at the smallest scale, the native-exotic richness correlation was negative. The average value for homogenization indices was 0.096 and 0.168, using Jaccard's and Simpson's indices, respectively, indicating that these wetland plant communities have been homogenized because of invasion by exotic species. Main Conclusions, Our study demonstrated a clear shift from a positive to a negative native-exotic species richness relationship from larger to smaller spatial scales. The negative native-exotic richness relationship that we found is suggested to result from direct biotic interactions (competitive exclusion) between native and exotic species, whereas positive correlations likely reflect the more prominent influence of habitat heterogeneity on richness at larger scales. Our finding of homogenization at the community level extends conclusions from previous studies having found this pattern at much larger spatial scales. Furthermore, these results suggest that even while exhibiting a positive native-exotic richness relationship, community level biotas can/are still being homogenized because of exotic species invasion. [source] Environmental determinants of amphibian and reptile species richness in ChinaECOGRAPHY, Issue 4 2007Hong Qian Understanding the factors that regulate geographical variation in species richness has been one of the fundamental questions in ecology for decades, but our knowledge of the cause of geographical variation in species richness remains poor. This is particularly true for herpetofaunas (including amphibians and reptiles). Here, using correlation and regression analyses, we examine the relationship of herpetofaunal species richness in 245 localities across China with 30 environmental factors, which include nearly all major environmental factors that are considered to explain broad-scale species richness gradients in such theories as ambient energy, water,energy dynamics, productivity, habitat heterogeneity, and climatic stability. We found that the species richness of amphibians and reptiles is moderately to strongly correlated with most of the environmental variables examined, and that the best fit models, which include explanatory variables of temperature, precipitation, net primary productivity, minimum elevation, and range in elevation, explain ca 70% the variance in species richness for both amphibians and reptiles after accounting for sample area. Although water and temperature are important explanatory variables to both amphibians and reptiles, water variables explain more variance in amphibian species richness than in reptile species richness whereas temperature variables explain more variance in reptile species richness than in amphibian species richness, which is consistent with different physiological requirements of the two groups of organisms. [source] Correlative 3D Microscopy: CLSM and FIB/SEM TomographyIMAGING & MICROSCOPY (ELECTRONIC), Issue 3 2008A Study of Cellular Entry of Vaccinia Virus Abstract Subcellular structural investigation on single cells or tissue samples requires the coupling of optimal structural preservation with detailed imaging at the light and electron microscopic level. To apply light microscopy (FLM, CLSM) and electron microscopy (SEM, FIB/SEM, TEM) imaging modes to the identical sample area has become available with the establishment of chemical preparation, or freeze-substitution protocols after high pressure freezing, adapted to retain fluorophores. One and the same structure can now be investigated at mm to nm range in 2D and 3D in a multimodal set-up [1, 2]. In combination with live cell imaging prior to immobilisation, this approach becomes a powerful tool in life science, e.g. in the development of new anti-viral strategies, as this requires detailed information on the replication cycle of viruses and their interaction with their host cells. [source] Prevalence and correlates of late-life depression compared between urban and rural populations in KoreaINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GERIATRIC PSYCHIATRY, Issue 5 2002Jae-Min Kim Abstract Background The aetiology of late-life depression has received relatively little research in developing countries. Urban and rural populations have rarely been sampled in the same study. Objectives To investigate demographic factors associated with depression and depressive symptoms in an urban and rural sample of older Korean people. Methods A community survey of residents aged 65 or over was conducted in an urban and a rural area within Kwangju, South Korea. The Korean Form of the Geriatric Depression Scale (KGDS) was administered. Associations with demographic, socio-economic factors and cognitive function (MMSE) were investigated for depression categorised according to a previously validated cut-off. Results The sample comprised 485 urban-dwelling and 649 rural-dwelling participants. No difference was found between urban and rural samples for prevalence rates of depression. However associations with independent variables varied between the areas. In the urban sample, increased age, low education, manual occupation and current rented accommodation were independently associated with depression. Only low education was associated with depression in the rural sample. The interaction with sample area was strongest for age (p,<,0.01) and persisted after further adjustment for cognitive function. Conclusions Adverse socio-economic status was strongly associated with depression and appeared to operate across the life-course. While no evidence was found for urban,rural differences in prevalence rates of depression, factors associated with depression differed between these populations. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Efficiency of point abundance sampling by electro-fishing modified for short fishesJOURNAL OF APPLIED ICHTHYOLOGY, Issue 5 2003M. Scholten Summary The assessment of fish densities using point abundance sampling by electro-fishing requires information about the size of the sample area. For electro-fishing the effective fishing range depends on biological effects such as species and length of fish as well as physical effects like conductivity of water or substrate type. The present study investigates systematically the impact of conductivity and substrate type on the extension of the electrical field of a battery-powered electro-fishing gear (DEKA 3000, Marsberg, Germany), modified for larval and juvenile fishes. Threshold values for galvanotaxis were examined for juvenile fishes of five species in terms of current densities. Based on 71 experiments a general function relating body length to current density threshold values was developed. Optimal electrical current flow periods of 10 s were determined. For three different substrate types (gravel, sand, mud) a formula has been developed to quantify biological and physical effects on the effective fishing range. Each equation included information on the length of fish and the ambient conductivity. An increase in the effective fishing range of about 10% every 0.1 mS cm,1 was established. Reduction of the fishing range over muddy substrate was about 20,30% compared with coarse gravel or sand. This study provides a sufficient tool to calculate area-related densities of larval and juvenile fishes in different habitat types of a large river system using point abundance sampling by electro-fishing. Finally, calculated fish densities were evaluated by different types of fishing gear. [source] Evaluation of rayon swab surface sample collection method for Bacillus spores from nonporous surfacesJOURNAL OF APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY, Issue 4 2007G.S. Brown Abstract Aim:, To evaluate US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommended swab surface sample collection method for recovery efficiency and limit of detection for powdered Bacillus spores from nonporous surfaces. Methods and Results:, Stainless steel and painted wallboard surface coupons were seeded with dry aerosolized Bacillus atrophaeus spores and surface concentrations determined. The observed mean rayon swab recovery efficiency from stainless steel was 0·41 with a standard deviation (SD) of ±0·17 and for painted wallboard was 0·41 with an SD of ±0·23. Evaluation of a sonication extraction method for the rayon swabs produced a mean extraction efficiency of 0·76 with an SD of ±0·12. Swab recovery quantitative limits of detection were estimated at 25 colony forming units (CFU) per sample area for both stainless steel and painted wallboard. Conclusions:, The swab sample collection method may be appropriate for small area sampling (10 ,25 cm2) with a high agent concentration, but has limited value for large surface areas with a low agent concentration. The results of this study provide information necessary for the interpretation of swab environmental sample collection data, that is, positive swab samples are indicative of high surface concentrations and may imply a potential for exposure, whereas negative swab samples do not assure that organisms are absent from the surfaces sampled and may not assure the absence of the potential for exposure. Significance and Impact of the Study:, It is critical from a public health perspective that the information obtained is accurate and reproducible. The consequence of an inappropriate public health response founded on information gathered using an ineffective or unreliable sample collection method has the potential for undesired social and economic impact. [source] Habitat heterogeneity overrides the species,area relationshipJOURNAL OF BIOGEOGRAPHY, Issue 4 2008András Báldi Abstract Aim, The most obvious, although not exclusive, explanation for the increase of species richness with increasing sample area (the species,area relationship) is that species richness is ultimately linked to area-based increases in habitat heterogeneity. The aim of this paper is to examine the relative importance of area and habitat heterogeneity in determining species richness in nature reserves. Specifically, the work tests the hypothesis that species,area relationships are not positive if habitat heterogeneity does not increase with area. Location, Sixteen nature reserves (area range 89,11,030 ha) in central Hungary. Methods, Four-year faunistic inventories were conducted in the reserves involving c. 70 fieldworkers and 65 taxonomists. CORINE 50,000 land-cover maps were used for calculating the heterogeneity of the reserve landscape (number of habitat types, number of habitat patches and total length of edges). Results, Large reserves were less heterogeneous than small reserves, probably because large reserves were established in large blocks of unproductive land whereas small reserves tended to be in more fertile land. In total, 3975 arthropod species were included in the analysis. The slope of the species,area relationship was positive only for Neuroptera and Trichoptera. There was no significant relationship in the other nine taxa examined (Collembola, Acari, Orthoptera, Thysanoptera, Coleoptera, Araneae, Diplopoda, Chilopoda, Diptera). The density (number of species ha,1) of all species, however, showed a positive correlation with heterogeneity. Main conclusions, The general lack of fit of species,area relationships in this study is inconsistent with most previous published studies. Importantly, and unlike many other studies, habitat heterogeneity was not correlated with reserve area in the studied system. In the absence of this source of covariation, stronger relationships were identified that suggested a fundamental link between species richness and habitat heterogeneity. The results indicate that habitat heterogeneity rather than area per se is the most important predictor of species richness in the studied system. [source] First combined electron backscatter diffraction and transmission electron microscopy study of grain boundary structure of deformed quartziteJOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY, Issue 3 2006N. SHIGEMATSU Summary The structures of boundaries in a deformed and dynamically recovered and recrystallized quartz polycrystal (mylonite) were characterized by transmission electron microscopy, after the misorientation angles across the same grain boundaries had been analysed using electron backscatter diffraction in a scanning electron microscope. In this new approach, a specific sample area is mapped with electron backscatter diffraction, and the mapped area is then attached to a foil, and by the ion beam thinned for transmission electron microscopy analysis. Dislocations in grain boundaries were recognized as periodic and parallel fringes. The fringes associated with dislocations are observed in boundaries with misorientations less than 9°, whereas such fringes cannot be seen in the boundaries with misorientations larger than 17°. Some boundaries with misorientations between 9° and 17° generally have no structures associated with dislocation. One segment of a boundary with a misorientation of 13.5° has structures associated with dislocations. It is likely that the transition from low-angle to high-angle boundaries occurs at misorientations ranging from approximately 9° to 14°. Change in the grain boundary structure presumably influences the mobility of the boundaries. In the studied deformed quartz vein, a relative dearth of boundaries between misorientation angles of , = 2° and , = 15° has previously been reported, and high-angle boundaries form cusps where they intersect low-angle boundaries, suggesting substantial mobility of high-angle boundaries. [source] Plot shape effects on plant species diversity measurementsJOURNAL OF VEGETATION SCIENCE, Issue 2 2005Jon E. Keeley Abstract. Question: Do rectangular sample plots record more plant species than square plots as suggested by both empirical and theoretical studies? Location: Grasslands, shrublands and forests in the Mediterranean-climate region of California, USA. Methods: We compared three 0.1-ha sampling designs that differed in the shape and dispersion of 1-m2 and 100-m2 nested subplots. We duplicated an earlier study that compared the Whittaker sample design, which had square clustered subplots, with the modified Whittaker design, which had dispersed rectangular subplots. To sort out effects of dispersion from shape we used a third design that overlaid square subplots on the modified Whittaker design. Also, using data from published studies we extracted species richness values for 400-m2 subplots that were either square or 1:4 rectangles partially overlaid on each other from desert scrub in high and low rainfall years, chaparral, sage scrub, oak savanna and coniferous forests with and without fire. Results: We found that earlier empirical reports of more than 30% greater richness with rectangles were due to the confusion of shape effects with spatial effects, coupled with the use of cumulative number of species as the metric for comparison. Average species richness was not significantly different between square and 1:4 rectangular sample plots at either 1- or 100-m2. Pairwise comparisons showed no significant difference between square and rectangular samples in all but one vegetation type, and that one exhibited significantly greater richness with squares. Our three intensive study sites appear to exhibit some level of self-similarity at the scale of 400 m2, but, contrary to theoretical expectations, we could not detect plot shape effects on species richness at this scale. Conclusions: At the 0.1-ha scale or lower there is no evidence that plot shape has predictable effects on number of species recorded from sample plots. We hypothesize that for the mediterranean-climate vegetation types studied here, the primary reason that 1:4 rectangles do not sample greater species richness than squares is because species turnover varies along complex environmental gradients that are both parallel and perpendicular to the long axis of rectangular plots. Reports in the literature of much greater species richness recorded for highly elongated rectangular strips than for squares of the same area are not likely to be fair comparisons because of the dramatically different periphery/area ratio, which includes a much greater proportion of species that are using both above and below-ground niche space outside the sample area. [source] Agricultural trajectories in a Mediterranean mountain region (Priorat, NE Spain) as a consequence of vineyard conversion plansLAND DEGRADATION AND DEVELOPMENT, Issue 1 2009R. Cots-Folch Abstract In mountain regions of Mediterranean European countries, recent economic and technologic changes have involved the intensification of crops, based on heavy land levelling and/or terracing, and the abandonment or marginalization of traditional land use management. These trends have been reinforced by the subsidy policies of the European Union. The objectives of the present research were: (a) to contribute to the understanding of agricultural trajectories and farming systems that are entirely transforming the social and environmental characteristics of Mediterranean mountain areas, focusing on the analysis of the main agricultural trajectories in a sample area of this environment (the Priorat region, NE Spain) over the last 20 years (1986,2005); and (b) to analyse the farming systems that coexist in the region with regard to the landscape impacts they involve and the influence of CAP subsidies in each one. A methodological approach based on the combination of multivariate statistical techniques was used to obtain a better knowledge of the heterogeneity of farming systems on a local scale. The results show that, although most farms cultivate a mosaic of traditional crops and have small mechanized areas, a minority group follows a high intensification and specialization strategy based on new mechanized-terraced vineyards. This group only comprises 12 per cent of the farmers in the region, but owns 61 per cent of the new vineyard plantations and 42 per cent of the total agricultural land, receiving most of the subsidies from the EU vineyard conversion and restructuring policy (68 per cent of total Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) subsidies assigned to the region). Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Anisotropic FMR-linewidth of triple-domain Fe layers on hexagonal GaN(0001)PHYSICA STATUS SOLIDI (A) APPLICATIONS AND MATERIALS SCIENCE, Issue 7 2006M. Buchmeier Abstract We present a ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) study of Fe films with thicknesses between 5 and 70 nm prepared by electron-beam evaporation on top of hexagonal GaN(0001). X-ray diffraction (XRD) and low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) suggest the growth in crystallographic Fe(110) domains with three different orientations. The magnetic properties have been investigated by in-plane angle-dependent FMR at frequencies between 4.5 to 24 GHz. All samples show a hexagonal in-plane anisotropy with the easy axes oriented parallel to the Fe [001] directions. The anisotropy field strength of about 8 mT reveals a bulk-like thickness dependence. Therefore, we can exclude the following origins of anisotropy: (i) interface effects because of the bulk-like thickness dependence and (ii) averaged first order cubic or uniaxial anisotropies arising from the three grain orientations because of the relative strengths. We qualitatively explain the sixfold anisotropy by spin relaxation inside the grains. The FMR linewidth versus frequency curves are linear with almost no zero-frequency offset indicating a good homogeneity of the magnetic properties over the sample area. However, the effective damping parameter , shows pronounced anisotropy and thickness dependence, with enhanced damping along the hard axes and for thicker layers. We suggest that the additional damping can be explained by two-magnon scattering at defects which are due to the triple domain structure. (© 2006 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim) [source] Effects of human,carnivore conflict on tiger (Panthera tigris) and prey populations in Lao PDRANIMAL CONSERVATION, Issue 4 2006A. Johnson Abstract Unique to South-east Asia, Lao People's Democratic Republic contains extensive habitat for tigers and their prey within a multiple-use protected area system covering 13% of the country. Although human population density is the lowest in the region, the impact of human occurrence in protected areas on tiger Panthera tigris and prey populations was unknown. We examined the effects of human,carnivore conflict on tiger and prey abundance and distribution in the Nam Et-Phou Louey National Protected Area on the Lao,Vietnam border. We conducted intensive camera-trap sampling of large carnivores and prey at varying levels of human population and monitored carnivore depredation of livestock across the protected area. The relative abundance of large ungulates was low throughout whereas that of small prey was significantly higher where human density was lower. The estimated tiger density for the sample area ranged from 0.2 to 0.7 per 100 km2. Tiger abundance was significantly lower where human population and disturbance were greater. Three factors, commercial poaching associated with livestock grazing followed by prey depletion and competition between large carnivores, are likely responsible for tiger abundance and distribution. Maintaining tigers in the country's protected areas will be dependent on the spatial separation of large carnivores and humans by modifying livestock husbandry practices and enforcing zoning. [source] Developments in the application of photography to ecological monitoring, with reference to algal bedsAQUATIC CONSERVATION: MARINE AND FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS, Issue 2 2001Jean-Paul A. Ducrotoy Abstract 1.,The potential for using photographic methods in ecological monitoring of intertidal rocky shores was investigated at two scales: the scale of a bay, and at sampling quadrat level. 2.,The macroalgal beds at Selwicks Bay, Flamborough Head (north Humberside Coast, England) were used as a case study. 3.,At each station on three 90 m transects, a photograph was taken of a 50 cm2 quadrat. These images were analysed using SigmaScanÔ to measure the cover of algal species. These data were highly correlated with field data collected using a grid quadrat. 4.,Ground techniques were developed for drawing a scaled overhead map of the bay. The potential for a quantitative survey of the extent of the algal beds using cliff top photographs was investigated. The photographs were merged, and rectified using Arc/InfoÔ (a Geographical Information System package) to produce scaled overhead images of the bay. 5.,The two complementary methods developed are suitable for involving amateur naturalists into field-data collection. They were also designed to meet long-term statutory monitoring requirements. They are quick, so are well suited to intertidal areas where field sampling windows are limited. In long-term monitoring strategies, the use of photography produces interactive permanent records of the sample area for back reference. Reporting on the conservation status of sites of European interest could be greatly facilitated by such techniques. 6.,There are obvious applications for overseas monitoring and base-line surveys, which demand large data sets to be collected in limited periods of time. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Cover Picture: ChemPhysChem 1/2003CHEMPHYSCHEM, Issue 1 2003Renate Petry Dr. The cover picture shows a picture of a Mentha × piperita plant, which has a high pharmaceutical relevance. Raman spectra of extremely high spatial resolution have been recorded of this plant by applying etched and silver-coated glass fiber tips; a method which has been developed in our group within the scope of a BMBF project FKZ 13N7511 located in the framework of Laser-Biodynamik. On the right, a picture of such a glass fiber tip illuminated by the Raman laser is shown. The fiber tip is brought extremely close to the sample area to be investigated. The picture also shows the Raman spectrum obtained by applying this fiber-tip technique. This method allows the recording of Raman spectra of biologically relevant samples with an extremely high spatial resolution (200 nm). [source] An assessment of the differences between three satellite snow cover mapping techniques,HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES, Issue 18 2002David Bitner Abstract The National Operational Hydrologic Remote Sensing Center (NOHRSC) of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA's) National Weather Service (NWS) provides daily satellite-derived snow cover maps to support the NWS Hydrologic Services Program covering the coterminous USA and Alaska. This study compared the NOHRSC snow cover maps with new automated snow cover maps produced by the National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) and the snow cover maps created from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) imagery. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate and account for the differences that occur between the three different snow cover mapping techniques. Because each of these snow cover products uses data from different sensors at different resolutions, the data were degraded to the coarsest relevant resolution. In both comparisons, forest canopy density was examined as a possible explanatory factor to account for those differences. NOHRSC snow cover maps were compared with NESDIS snow cover maps for 32 different dates from November 2000 to February 2001. NOHRSC snow cover maps were also compared with MODIS snow cover maps in the Pacific Northwest and the Great Plains for 18 days and 21 days, respectively, between March and June 2001. In the first comparison, where the NOHRSC product (,1 km) was degraded to match the resolution of the NESDIS data (,5 km), the two products showed an average agreement of 96%. Forest canopy density data provided only weak explanation for the differences between the NOHRSC and the NESDIS snow cover maps. In the second comparison, where the MODIS product (,500 m) was degraded to match the resolution of the NOHRSC product for two sample areas, the agreement was 94% in the study area in the Pacific Northwest, and 95% in the study area in the Great Plains. Published in 2002 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] SEM investigation of interfacial dislocations in nickel-base superalloysJOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY, Issue 2 2007ALEXANDER EPISHIN Summary A new technique for investigation of interfacial dislocations in nickel-base superalloys by scanning electron microscopy is presented. At high temperatures the pressure of interfacial dislocations against the ,/,,-interface causes grooves. This ,fingerprint of the dislocation network' is visualized by deep selective etching, which removes the ,,-phase down to the ,/,,-interface. Compared with transmission electron microscopy, the proposed method has important advantages: observation of large sample areas, no superposition of dislocations lying in different specimen depths, possibility of three-dimensional view of dislocation configurations, information about the dislocation mobility, reduced time for preparation and visualization. The method can be applied for multiphase materials where the interface is grooved by interfacial dislocations. [source] Center for Synchrotron Biosciences' U2B beamline: an international resource for biological infrared spectroscopyJOURNAL OF SYNCHROTRON RADIATION, Issue 4 2002N. S. Marinkovic A synchrotron infrared (IR) beamline, U2B, dedicated to the biomedical and biological sciences has been constructed and is in operation at the National Synchrotron Light Source (NSLS) of Brookhaven National Laboratory. The facility is operated by the Center for Synchrotron Biosciences of the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in cooperation with the NSLS. Owing to the broadband nature of the synchrotron beam with brightness 1000 times that of conventional sources, Fourier transform IR spectroscopy experiments are feasible on diffraction-limited sample areas at high signal-to-noise ratios and with relatively short data-acquisition times. A number of synchrotron IR microscopy experiments that have been performed in the mid-IR spectral range (500,5000,cm,1) are summarized, including time-resolved protein-folding studies in the microsecond time regime, IR imaging of neurons, bone and other biological tissues, as well as imaging of samples of interest in the chemical and environmental sciences. Owing to the high flux output of this beamline in the far-IR region (50,500,cm,1), investigations of hydrogen bonding and dynamic molecular motions of biomolecules have been carried out from 10 to 300,K using a custom-made cryostat and an evacuated box. This facility is intended as an international resource for biological IR spectroscopy fully available to outside users based on competitive proposal. [source] Integration of remote sensing, geophysical surveys and archaeological excavation for the study of a medieval mound (Tuscany, Italy)ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROSPECTION, Issue 3 2009S. Campana Abstract The area described in this article was ,detected' by the Laboratory for Landscape Archeology and Remote Sensing, University of Siena research team during aerial prospection in spring 2005. Analysis of the aerial photographs allowed interpretation of the site as a triple-ditched enclosure. During subsequent field-walking survey a number of archaeological artefacts were collected and mapped. Differential global positioning system (DGPS) survey confirmed the morphological pattern of the site, which seems to represent a survival of the Early Medieval Age settlement pattern on the coastal plain. The field-walking and DGPS surveys were followed by a programme of geophysical survey combining three different methods: differential magnetics (Overhauser probe), ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and Automatic Resistivity Profiler (ARP©, Geocarta). Finally, three sample areas were excavated, mainly to test the evidence collected previously. The excavation data , ditches, post-holes, domestic pottery, animal bones, and wall remains , support the interpretation of the site as the first earth-and-timber castle mound, or motte, to be identified in Tuscany. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] | ||||||||||||||||||||||