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Richness Patterns (richness + pattern)
Kinds of Richness Patterns Selected AbstractsRichness patterns, species distributions and the principle of extreme deconstructionGLOBAL ECOLOGY, Issue 2 2009Levi Carina Terribile ABSTRACT Aim, To analyse the global patterns in species richness of Viperidae snakes through the deconstruction of richness into sets of species according to their distribution models, range size, body size and phylogenetic structure, and to test if environmental drivers explaining the geographical ranges of species are similar to those explaining richness patterns, something we called the extreme deconstruction principle. Location, Global. Methods, We generated a global dataset of 228 terrestrial viperid snakes, which included geographical ranges (mapped at 1° resolution, for a grid with 7331 cells world-wide), body sizes and phylogenetic relationships among species. We used logistic regression (generalized linear model; GLM) to model species geographical ranges with five environmental predictors. Sets of species richness were also generated for large and small-bodied species, for basal and derived species and for four classes of geographical range sizes. Richness patterns were also modelled against the five environmental variables through standard ordinary least squares (OLS) multiple regressions. These subsets are replications to test if environmental factors driving species geographical ranges can be directly associated with those explaining richness patterns. Results, Around 48% of the total variance in viperid richness was explained by the environmental model, but richness sets revealed different patterns across the world. The similarity between OLS coefficients and the primacy of variables across species geographical range GLMs was equal to 0.645 when analysing all viperid snakes. Thus, in general, when an environmental predictor it is important to model species geographical ranges, this predictor is also important when modelling richness, so that the extreme deconstruction principle holds. However, replicating this correlation using subsets of species within different categories in body size, range size and phylogenetic structure gave more variable results, with correlations between GLM and OLS coefficients varying from ,0.46 up to 0.83. Despite this, there is a relatively high correspondence (r = 0.73) between the similarity of GLM-OLS coefficients and R2 values of richness models, indicating that when richness is well explained by the environment, the relative importance of environmental drivers is similar in the richness OLS and its corresponding set of GLMs. Main conclusions, The deconstruction of species richness based on macroecological traits revealed that, at least for range size and phylogenetic level, the causes underlying patterns in viperid richness differ for the various sets of species. On the other hand, our analyses of extreme deconstruction using GLM for species geographical range support the idea that, if environmental drivers determine the geographical distribution of species by establishing niche boundaries, it is expected, at least in theory, that the overlap among ranges (i.e. richness) will reveal similar effects of these environmental drivers. Richness patterns may be indeed viewed as macroecological consequences of population-level processes acting on species geographical ranges. [source] Does plant richness influence animal richness?: the mammals of Catalonia (NE Spain)DIVERSITY AND DISTRIBUTIONS, Issue 4 2004Bradford A. Hawkins ABSTRACT Although it has long been held that plant diversity must influence animal diversity, the nature of this relationship remains poorly understood at large spatial scales. We compare the species richness patterns of vascular plants and mammals in north-eastern Spain using a 100-km2 grain size to examine patterns of covariation. We found that the total mammal richness pattern, as well as those of herbivores and carnivores considered separately, only weakly corresponded to the pattern of plants. Rather, mammal richness was best described by climatic variables incorporating water inputs, and after adding these variables to multiple regression models, plant and mammal richness were virtually independent. We conclude that the observed association, although weak, is explained by shared responses of both groups to climate, and thus, plant richness has no influence on the richness pattern of Catalan mammals. [source] Contribution of rarity and commonness to patterns of species richnessECOLOGY LETTERS, Issue 2 2004Jack J. Lennon Abstract There is little understanding in ecology as to how biodiversity patterns emerge from the distribution patterns of individual species. Here we consider the question of the contributions of rare (restricted range) and common (widespread) species to richness patterns. Considering a species richness pattern, is most of the spatial structure, in terms of where the peaks and troughs of diversity lie, caused by the common species or the rare species (or neither)? Using southern African and British bird richness patterns, we show here that commoner species are most responsible for richness patterns. While rare and common species show markedly different species richness patterns, most spatial patterning in richness is caused by relatively few, more common, species. The level of redundancy we found suggests that a broad understanding of what determines the majority of spatial variation in biodiversity may be had by considering only a minority of species. [source] Factors controlling the spatial species richness pattern of four groups of terrestrial vertebrates in an area between two different biogeographic regions in northern SpainJOURNAL OF BIOGEOGRAPHY, Issue 4 2004David Nogués-Bravo Abstract Aim, To examine the influence of environmental variables on species richness patterns of amphibians, reptiles, mammals and birds and to assess the general usefulness of regional atlases of fauna. Location, Navarra (10,421 km2) is located in the north of the Iberian Peninsula, in a territory shared by Mediterranean and Eurosiberian biogeographic regions. Important ecological patterns, climate, topography and land-cover vary significantly from north to south. Methods, Maps of vertebrate distribution and climatological and environmental data bases were used in a geographic information systems framework. Generalized additive models and partial regression analysis were used as statistical tools to differentiate (A) the purely spatial fraction, (B) the spatially structured environmental fraction and (C) the purely environmental fraction. In this way, we can evaluate the explanatory capacity of each variable, avoiding false correlations and assessing true causality. Final models were obtained through a stepwise procedure. Results, Energy-related features of climate, aridity and land-cover variables show significant correlation with the species richness of reptiles, mammals and birds. Mammals and birds exhibit a spatial pattern correlated with variables such as aridity index and vegetation land-cover. However, the high values of the spatially structured environmental fraction B and the low values of the purely environmental fraction A suggest that these predictor variables have a limited causal relationship with species richness for these vertebrate groups. An increment in land-cover diversity is correlated with an increment of specific richness in reptiles, mammals and birds. No variables were found to be statistically correlated with amphibian species richness. Main conclusions, Although aridity and land-cover are the best predictor variables, their causal relationship with species richness must be considered with caution. Historical factors exhibiting a similar spatial pattern may be considered equally important in explaining the patterns of species richness. Also, land-cover diversity appears as an important factor for maintaining biological diversity. Partial regression analysis has proved a useful technique in dealing with spatial autocorrelation. These results highlight the usefulness of coarsely sampled data and cartography at regional scales to predict and explain species richness patterns for mammals and birds. The accuracy of models appears to be related to the range perception of each group and the scale of the information. [source] Does plant richness influence animal richness?: the mammals of Catalonia (NE Spain)DIVERSITY AND DISTRIBUTIONS, Issue 4 2004Bradford A. Hawkins ABSTRACT Although it has long been held that plant diversity must influence animal diversity, the nature of this relationship remains poorly understood at large spatial scales. We compare the species richness patterns of vascular plants and mammals in north-eastern Spain using a 100-km2 grain size to examine patterns of covariation. We found that the total mammal richness pattern, as well as those of herbivores and carnivores considered separately, only weakly corresponded to the pattern of plants. Rather, mammal richness was best described by climatic variables incorporating water inputs, and after adding these variables to multiple regression models, plant and mammal richness were virtually independent. We conclude that the observed association, although weak, is explained by shared responses of both groups to climate, and thus, plant richness has no influence on the richness pattern of Catalan mammals. [source] Why do mountains support so many species of birds?ECOGRAPHY, Issue 3 2008Adriana Ruggiero Although topographic complexity is often associated with high bird diversity at broad geographic scales, little is known about the relative contributions of geomorphologic heterogeneity and altitudinal climatic gradients found in mountains. We analysed the birds in the western mountains of the New World to examine the two-fold effect of topography on species richness patterns, using two grains at the intercontinental extent and within temperate and tropical latitudes. Birds were also classified as montane or lowland, based on their overall distributions in the hemisphere. We estimated range in temperature within each cell and the standard deviation in elevation (topographic roughness) based on all pixels within each cell. We used path analysis to test for the independent effects of topographic roughness and temperature range on species richness while controlling for the collinearity between topographic variables. At the intercontinental extent, actual evapotranspiration (AET) was the primary driver of species richness patterns of all species taken together and of lowland species considered separately. In contrast, within-cell temperature gradients strongly influenced the richness of montane species. Regional partitioning of the data also suggested that range in temperature either by itself or acting in combination with AET had the strongest "effect" on montane bird species richness everywhere. Topographic roughness had weaker "effects" on richness variation throughout, although its positive relationship with richness increased slightly in the tropics. We conclude that bird diversity gradients in mountains primarily reflect local climatic gradients. Widespread (lowland) species and narrow-ranged (montane) species respond similarly to changes in the environment, differing only in that the richness of lowland species correlates better with broad-scale climatic effects (AET), whereas mesoscale climatic variation accounts for richness patterns of montane species. Thus, latitudinal and altitudinal gradients in species richness can be explained through similar climatic-based processes, as has long been argued. [source] Elevational patterns of frog species richness and endemic richness in the Hengduan Mountains, China: geometric constraints, area and climate effectsECOGRAPHY, Issue 6 2006Cuizhang Fu We studied frog biodiversity along an elevational gradient in the Hengduan Mountains, China. Endemic and non-endemic elevational diversity patterns were examined individually. Competing hypotheses were also tested for these patterns. Species richness of total frogs, endemics and non-endemics peaked at mid-elevations. The peak in endemic species richness was at higher elevations than the maxima of total species richness. Endemic species richness followed the mid-domain model predictions, and showed a nonlinear relationship with temperature. Water and energy were the most important variables in explaining elevational patterns of non-endemic species richness. A suite of interacting climatic and geometric factors best explained total species richness patterns along the elevational gradient. We suggest that the mid-domain effect was an important factor to explain elevational richness patterns, especially in regions with high endemism. [source] Species richness patterns and metapopulation processes , evidence from epiphyte communities in boreo-nemoral forestsECOGRAPHY, Issue 2 2006Swantje Löbel For several epiphyte species, dispersal limitation and metapopulation dynamics have been suggested. We studied the relative importance of local environmental conditions and spatial aggregation of species richness of facultative and obligate epiphytic bryophytes and lichens within two old-growth forests in eastern Sweden. The effect of the local environment was analyzed using generalized linear models (GLM). We tested whether species richness was spatially structured by fitting variogram models to the residuals of the GLM. In addition, we analyzed the species-area relationship (area=tree diameter). Different environmental variables explained the richness of different species groups (bryophytes vs lichens, specialists vs generalists, sexual vs asexual dispersal). In most groups, the total variation explained by environmental variables was higher than the variation explained by the spatial model. Spatial aggregation was more pronounced in asexually than in sexually dispersed species. Bryophyte species richness was only poorly predicted by area, and lichen species richness was not explained by area at all. Spatial aggregation may indicate effects of dispersal limitation and metapopulation dynamics on community species richness. Our results suggest that species groups differ in habitat requirements and dispersal abilities; there were indications that presence of species with different dispersal strategies is linked to the age of the host tree. Separate analyses of the species richness of species groups that differ in the degree of habitat specialization and dispersal ability give insights into the processes determining community species richness. The poor species-area relationship, especially in lichens, may indicate species turnover rather than accumulation during the lifetime of the host tree. Epiphyte species extinctions may be mainly caused by deterministic processes, e.g. changes in habitat conditions as the host tree grows, ages and dies, rather than by stochastic population processes. [source] The river domain: why are there more species halfway up the river?ECOGRAPHY, Issue 2 2006Robert R. Dunn Biologists have long noted higher levels of species diversity in the longitudinal middle-courses of river systems and have proposed many explanations. As a new explanation for this widespread pattern, we suggest that many middle-course peaks in richness may be, at least in part, a consequence of geometric constraints on the location of species' ranges along river courses, considering river headwaters and mouths as boundaries for the taxa considered. We demonstrate this extension of the mid-domain effect (MDE) to river systems for riparian plants along two rivers in Sweden, where a previous study found a middle-course peak in richness of natural (non-ruderal) species. We compare patterns of empirical richness of these species to null model predictions of species richness along the two river systems and to spatial patterns for six environmental variables (channel width, substrate fineness, substrate heterogeneity, ice scour, bank height, and bank area). In addition, we examine the independent prediction of mid-domain effects models that species with large ranges, because the location of their ranges is more constrained, are more likely to produce a mid-domain peak in richness than are species with small ranges. Species richness patterns of riparian plants were best predicted by models including both null model predictions and environmental variables. When species were divided into large-ranged and small-ranged groups, the mid-domain effect was more prominent and the null model predictions were a better fit to the empirical richness patterns of large-ranged species than those of small-ranged species. Our results suggest that the peak in riparian plant species richness in the middle courses of the rivers studied can be explained by an underlying mid-domain effect (driven by geometric constraints on large-ranged species), together with environmental effects on richness patterns (particularly on small-ranged species). We suggest that the mid-domain effect may help to explain similar middle-course richness peaks along other rivers. [source] The significance of geographic range size for spatial diversity patterns in Neotropical palmsECOGRAPHY, Issue 1 2006Holger Kreft We examined the effect of range size in commonly applied macroecological analyses using continental distribution data for all 550 Neotropical palm species (Arecaceae) at varying grain sizes from 0.5° to 5°. First, we evaluated the relative contribution of range-restricted and widespread species on the patterns of species richness and endemism. Second, we analysed the impact of range size on the predictive value of commonly used predictor variables. Species sequences were produced arranging species according to their range size in ascending, descending, and random order. Correlations between the cumulative species richness patterns of these sequences and environmental predictors were performed in order to analyse the effect of range size. Despite the high proportion of rare species, patterns of species richness were found to be dominated by a minority of widespread species (,20%) which contained 80% of the spatial information. Climatic factors related to energy and water availability and productivity accounted for much of the spatial variation of species richness of widespread species. In contrast, species richness of range-restricted species was to a larger extent determined by topographical complexity. However, this effect was much more difficult to detect due to a dominant influence of widespread species. Although the strength of different environmental predictors changed with spatial scale, the general patterns and trends proved to be relatively stabile at the examined grain sizes. Our results highlight the difficulties to approximate causal explanations for the occurrence of a majority of species and to distinguish between contemporary climatic factors and history. [source] The implications of different species concepts for describing biodiversity patterns and assessing conservation needs for African birdsECOGRAPHY, Issue 5 2005Shaun Dillon It has been suggested that switching from the widely used Biological Species Concept to a Phylogenetic Species Concept, would result in the appearance of hitherto neglected patterns of endemism. The problem has mainly been analyzed with respect to endemic taxa and for rather limited geographical regions, but will here be analysed for the entire resident avifauna of sub-Saharan Africa. A database of African bird distributions was re-edited to create two new datasets representing 1572 biological species and 2098 phylogenetic species. Species richness patterns were virtually identical with the two taxonomies, and only subtle changes were found in the geographical variation in range-size rarity sum. However, there were some differences in the most range-restricted species, with increased complexity of long-recognized centres of endemism. Overall, then, the large-scale biogeographic patterns are robust to changes in species concepts. This reflects the aggregated nature of endemism, with certain areas acting as "species pumps" and large intervening areas being characterised by a predominance of widespread species which distribute themselves in accordance with contemporary environmental conditions. The percentages of phylogenetic and threatened species captured in a BSC near-minimum set of 64 grid-cells and a PSC near-maximum set, with the same number of grid-cells, are very similar. [source] Does habitat use explain large scale species richness patterns of aquatic beetles in Europe?ECOGRAPHY, Issue 2 2003Ignacio Ribera Regularities in species richness are widely observed but controversy continues over its mechanistic explanation. Because richness patterns are usually a compound measure derived from taxonomically diverse species with different ecological requirements, these analyses may confound diverse causes of species numbers. Here we investigate species richness in the aquatic beetle fauna of Europe, separating major taxonomic groups and two major ecological types, species occurring in standing and running water bodies. We collated species distributions for 800+ species of water beetles in 15 regions across western Europe. Species number in any of these regions was related to three variables: total area size, geographic connectedness of the area, and latitude. Pooled species numbers were accurately predicted, but correlations were different for species associated with either running or standing water. The former were mostly correlated with latitude, while the latter were only correlated with the measure of connectedness or with area size. These differences were generally also observed in each of the four phylogenetically independent lineages of aquatic Coleoptera when analysed separately. We propose that effects of habitat, in this case possibly mediated by different long term persistence of running and standing water bodies, impose constraints at the population or local level which, if effective over larger temporal and spatial scales, determine global patterns of species richness. [source] Patterns and causes of species richness: a general simulation model for macroecologyECOLOGY LETTERS, Issue 9 2009Nicholas J. Gotelli Abstract Understanding the causes of spatial variation in species richness is a major research focus of biogeography and macroecology. Gridded environmental data and species richness maps have been used in increasingly sophisticated curve-fitting analyses, but these methods have not brought us much closer to a mechanistic understanding of the patterns. During the past two decades, macroecologists have successfully addressed technical problems posed by spatial autocorrelation, intercorrelation of predictor variables and non-linearity. However, curve-fitting approaches are problematic because most theoretical models in macroecology do not make quantitative predictions, and they do not incorporate interactions among multiple forces. As an alternative, we propose a mechanistic modelling approach. We describe computer simulation models of the stochastic origin, spread, and extinction of species' geographical ranges in an environmentally heterogeneous, gridded domain and describe progress to date regarding their implementation. The output from such a general simulation model (GSM) would, at a minimum, consist of the simulated distribution of species ranges on a map, yielding the predicted number of species in each grid cell of the domain. In contrast to curve-fitting analysis, simulation modelling explicitly incorporates the processes believed to be affecting the geographical ranges of species and generates a number of quantitative predictions that can be compared to empirical patterns. We describe three of the ,control knobs' for a GSM that specify simple rules for dispersal, evolutionary origins and environmental gradients. Binary combinations of different knob settings correspond to eight distinct simulation models, five of which are already represented in the literature of macroecology. The output from such a GSM will include the predicted species richness per grid cell, the range size frequency distribution, the simulated phylogeny and simulated geographical ranges of the component species, all of which can be compared to empirical patterns. Challenges to the development of the GSM include the measurement of goodness of fit (GOF) between observed data and model predictions, as well as the estimation, optimization and interpretation of the model parameters. The simulation approach offers new insights into the origin and maintenance of species richness patterns, and may provide a common framework for investigating the effects of contemporary climate, evolutionary history and geometric constraints on global biodiversity gradients. With further development, the GSM has the potential to provide a conceptual bridge between macroecology and historical biogeography. [source] Species,energy relationships and habitat complexity in bird communitiesECOLOGY LETTERS, Issue 8 2004Allen H. Hurlbert Abstract Species,energy theory is a commonly invoked theory predicting a positive relationship between species richness and available energy. The More Individuals Hypothesis (MIH) attempts to explain this pattern, and assumes that areas with greater food resources support more individuals, and that communities with more individuals include more species. Using a large dataset for North American birds, I tested these predictions of the MIH, and also examined the effect of habitat complexity on community structure. I found qualitative support for the relationships predicted by the MIH, however, the MIH alone was inadequate for fully explaining richness patterns. Communities in more productive sites had more individuals, but they also had more even relative abundance distributions such that a given number of individuals yielded a greater number of species. Richness and evenness were also higher in structurally complex forests compared to structurally more simple grasslands when controlling for available energy. [source] Contribution of rarity and commonness to patterns of species richnessECOLOGY LETTERS, Issue 2 2004Jack J. Lennon Abstract There is little understanding in ecology as to how biodiversity patterns emerge from the distribution patterns of individual species. Here we consider the question of the contributions of rare (restricted range) and common (widespread) species to richness patterns. Considering a species richness pattern, is most of the spatial structure, in terms of where the peaks and troughs of diversity lie, caused by the common species or the rare species (or neither)? Using southern African and British bird richness patterns, we show here that commoner species are most responsible for richness patterns. While rare and common species show markedly different species richness patterns, most spatial patterning in richness is caused by relatively few, more common, species. The level of redundancy we found suggests that a broad understanding of what determines the majority of spatial variation in biodiversity may be had by considering only a minority of species. [source] Global analysis of reptile elevational diversityGLOBAL ECOLOGY, Issue 4 2010Christy M. McCain ABSTRACT Aim, Latitudinal- and regional-scale studies of reptile diversity suggest a predominant temperature effect, unlike many other vertebrate richness patterns which tend to be highly correlated with both temperature and water variables. Here I examine montane gradients in reptile species richness with separate analyses of snakes and lizards from mountains around the world to assess a predominant temperature effect and three additional theories of diversity, including a temperature,water effect, the species,area effect and the mid-domain effect (MDE). Location, Twenty-five elevational gradients of reptile diversity from temperate, tropical and desert mountains in both hemispheres, spanning 10.3° N to 46.1° N. Methods, Elevational gradients in reptile diversity are based on data from the literature. Of the 63 data sets found or compiled, only those with a high, unbiased sampling effort were used in analyses. Twelve predictions and three interactions of diversity theory were tested using nonparametric statistics, linear regressions and multiple regression with the Akaike information criterion (AIC). Results, Reptile richness and, individually, snake and lizard richness on mountains followed four distinct patterns: decreasing, low-elevation plateaus, low-elevation plateaus with mid-elevation peaks, and mid-elevation peaks. Elevational reptile richness was most strongly correlated with temperature. The temperature effect was mediated by precipitation; reptile richness was more strongly tied to temperature on wet gradients than on arid gradients. Area was a secondary factor of importance, whereas the MDE was not strongly associated with reptile diversity on mountains. Main conclusions, Reptile diversity patterns on mountains did not follow the predicted temperature,water effect, as all diversity patterns were found on both wet and dry mountains. But the influence of precipitation on the temperature effect most likely reflects reptiles' use of radiant heat sources (sunning opportunities) that are more widespread on arid mountains than wet mountains due to lower humidity, sparser vegetation and less cloud cover across low and intermediate elevations. [source] Can the tropical conservatism hypothesis explain temperate species richness patterns?GLOBAL ECOLOGY, Issue 4 2009An inverse latitudinal biodiversity gradient in the New World snake tribe Lampropeltini ABSTRACT Aim, A latitudinal gradient in species richness, defined as a decrease in biodiversity away from the equator, is one of the oldest known patterns in ecology and evolutionary biology. However, there are also many known cases of increasing poleward diversity, forming inverse latitudinal biodiversity gradients. As only three processes (speciation, extinction and dispersal) can directly affect species richness in areas, similar factors may be responsible for both classical (high tropical diversity) and inverse (high temperate diversity) gradients. Thus, a modified explanation for differential species richness which accounts for both patterns would be preferable to one which only explains high tropical biodiversity. Location, The New World. Methods, We test several proposed ecological, temporal, evolutionary and spatial explanations for latitudinal diversity gradients in the New World snake tribe Lampropeltini, which exhibits its highest biodiversity in temperate regions. Results, We find that an extratropical peak in species richness is not explained by latitudinal variation in diversification rate, the mid-domain effect, or Rapoport's rule. Rather, earlier colonization and longer duration in the temperate zones allowing more time for speciation to increase biodiversity, phylogenetic niche conservatism limiting tropical dispersal and the expansion of the temperate zones in the Tertiary better explain inverse diversity gradients in this group. Main conclusions, Our conclusions are the inverse of the predictions made by the tropical conservatism hypothesis to explain higher biodiversity near the equator. Therefore, we suggest that the processes invoked are not intrinsic to the tropics but are dependent on historical biogeography to determine the distribution of species richness, which we refer to as the ,biogeographical conservatism hypothesis'. [source] Richness patterns, species distributions and the principle of extreme deconstructionGLOBAL ECOLOGY, Issue 2 2009Levi Carina Terribile ABSTRACT Aim, To analyse the global patterns in species richness of Viperidae snakes through the deconstruction of richness into sets of species according to their distribution models, range size, body size and phylogenetic structure, and to test if environmental drivers explaining the geographical ranges of species are similar to those explaining richness patterns, something we called the extreme deconstruction principle. Location, Global. Methods, We generated a global dataset of 228 terrestrial viperid snakes, which included geographical ranges (mapped at 1° resolution, for a grid with 7331 cells world-wide), body sizes and phylogenetic relationships among species. We used logistic regression (generalized linear model; GLM) to model species geographical ranges with five environmental predictors. Sets of species richness were also generated for large and small-bodied species, for basal and derived species and for four classes of geographical range sizes. Richness patterns were also modelled against the five environmental variables through standard ordinary least squares (OLS) multiple regressions. These subsets are replications to test if environmental factors driving species geographical ranges can be directly associated with those explaining richness patterns. Results, Around 48% of the total variance in viperid richness was explained by the environmental model, but richness sets revealed different patterns across the world. The similarity between OLS coefficients and the primacy of variables across species geographical range GLMs was equal to 0.645 when analysing all viperid snakes. Thus, in general, when an environmental predictor it is important to model species geographical ranges, this predictor is also important when modelling richness, so that the extreme deconstruction principle holds. However, replicating this correlation using subsets of species within different categories in body size, range size and phylogenetic structure gave more variable results, with correlations between GLM and OLS coefficients varying from ,0.46 up to 0.83. Despite this, there is a relatively high correspondence (r = 0.73) between the similarity of GLM-OLS coefficients and R2 values of richness models, indicating that when richness is well explained by the environment, the relative importance of environmental drivers is similar in the richness OLS and its corresponding set of GLMs. Main conclusions, The deconstruction of species richness based on macroecological traits revealed that, at least for range size and phylogenetic level, the causes underlying patterns in viperid richness differ for the various sets of species. On the other hand, our analyses of extreme deconstruction using GLM for species geographical range support the idea that, if environmental drivers determine the geographical distribution of species by establishing niche boundaries, it is expected, at least in theory, that the overlap among ranges (i.e. richness) will reveal similar effects of these environmental drivers. Richness patterns may be indeed viewed as macroecological consequences of population-level processes acting on species geographical ranges. [source] Why does the unimodal species richness,productivity relationship not apply to woody species: a lack of clonality or a legacy of tropical evolutionary history?GLOBAL ECOLOGY, Issue 3 2008Lauri Laanisto ABSTRACT Aim, To study how differences in species richness patterns of woody and herbaceous plants may be influenced by ecological and evolutionary factors. Unimodal species richness,productivity relationships (SRPRs) have been of interest to ecologists since they were first described three decades ago for British herbaceous vegetation by J. P. Grime. The decrease in richness at high productivity may be due to competitive exclusion of subordinate species, or diverse factors related to evolution and dispersal. Unimodal SRPRs are most often reported for plants, but there are exceptions. For example, unimodal SRPRs are common in the temperate zone but not in the tropics. Similarly, woody species and forest communities in the Northern Hemisphere do not tend to show unimodal SRPRs. Location, Global. Methods, We used data from the literature to test whether a unimodal SRPR applies to woody species and forest communities on a global scale. We explored whether the shape of SRPRs may be related to the lack of clonality in woody species (which may prevent their being competitively superior), or the legacy of evolutionary history (most temperate woody species originate from tropical lineages, and due to niche conservatism they may still demonstrate ,tropical patterns'). We used case studies that reported the names of the dominant or most abundant species for productive sites. Results, Woody species were indeed less clonal than herbaceous species. Both clonality and the temperate evolutionary background of dominating species were associated with unimodality in SRPRs, with woodiness modifying the clonality effect. Main conclusions, The unimodal SRPR has been common in the ecological literature because most such studies originate from temperate herbaceous communities with many clonal species. Consequently, both evolutionary and ecological factors may influence species richness patterns. [source] Type and spatial structure of distribution data and the perceived determinants of geographical gradients in ecology: the species richness of African birdsGLOBAL ECOLOGY, Issue 5 2007Jana M. McPherson ABSTRACT Aim, Studies exploring the determinants of geographical gradients in the occurrence of species or their traits obtain data by: (1) overlaying species range maps; (2) mapping survey-based species counts; or (3) superimposing models of individual species' distributions. These data types have different spatial characteristics. We investigated whether these differences influence conclusions regarding postulated determinants of species richness patterns. Location, Our study examined terrestrial bird diversity patterns in 13 nations of southern and eastern Africa, spanning temperate to tropical climates. Methods, Four species richness maps were compiled based on range maps, field-derived bird atlas data, logistic and autologistic distribution models. Ordinary and spatial regression models served to examine how well each of five hypotheses predicted patterns in each map. These hypotheses propose productivity, temperature, the heat,water balance, habitat heterogeneity and climatic stability as the predominant determinants of species richness. Results, The four richness maps portrayed broadly similar geographical patterns but, due to the nature of underlying data types, exhibited marked differences in spatial autocorrelation structure. These differences in spatial structure emerged as important in determining which hypothesis appeared most capable of explaining each map's patterns. This was true even when regressions accounted for spurious effects of spatial autocorrelation. Each richness map, therefore, identified a different hypothesis as the most likely cause of broad-scale gradients in species diversity. Main conclusions, Because the ,true' spatial structure of species richness patterns remains elusive, firm conclusions regarding their underlying environmental drivers remain difficult. More broadly, our findings suggest that care should be taken to interpret putative determinants of large-scale ecological gradients in light of the type and spatial characteristics of the underlying data. Indeed, closer scrutiny of these underlying data , here the distributions of individual species , and their environmental associations may offer important insights into the ultimate causes of observed broad-scale patterns. [source] Environmental determinants of vascular plant species richness in the Austrian AlpsJOURNAL OF BIOGEOGRAPHY, Issue 7 2005Dietmar Moser Abstract Aim, To test predictions of different large-scale biodiversity hypotheses by analysing species richness patterns of vascular plants in the Austrian Alps. Location, The Austrian part of the Alps (c. 53,500 km2). Methods, Within the floristic inventory of Central Europe the Austrian part of the Alps were systematically mapped for vascular plants. Data collection was based on a rectangular grid of 5 × 3 arc minutes (34,35 km2). Emerging species richness patterns were correlated with several environmental factors using generalized linear models. Primary environmental variables like temperature, precipitation and evapotranspiration were used to test climate-related hypotheses of species richness. Additionally, spatial and temporal variations in climatic conditions were considered. Bedrock geology, particularly the amount of calcareous substrates, the proximity to rivers and lakes and secondary variables like topographic, edaphic and land-use heterogeneity were used as additional predictors. Model results were evaluated by correlating modelled and observed species numbers. Results, Our final multiple regression model explains c. 50% of the variance in species richness patterns. Model evaluation results in a correlation coefficient of 0.64 between modelled and observed species numbers in an independent test data set. Climatic variables like temperature and potential evapotranspiration (PET) proved to be by far the most important predictors. In general, variables indicating climatic favourableness like the maxima of temperature and PET performed better than those indicating stress, like the respective minima. Bedrock mineralogy, especially the amount of calcareous substrate, had some additional explanatory power but was less influential than suggested by comparable studies. The amount of precipitation does not have any effect on species richness regionally. Among the descriptors of heterogeneity, edaphic and land-use heterogeneity are more closely correlated with species numbers than topographic heterogeneity. Main conclusions, The results support energy-driven processes as primary determinants of vascular plant species richness in temperate mountains. Stressful conditions obviously decrease species numbers, but presence of favourable habitats has higher predictive power in the context of species richness modelling. The importance of precipitation for driving global species diversity patterns is not necessarily reflected regionally. Annual range of temperature, an indicator of short-term climatic stability, proved to be of minor importance for the determination of regional species richness patterns. In general, our study suggests environmental heterogeneity to be of rather low predictive value for species richness patterns regionally. However, it may gain importance at more local scales. [source] Factors controlling the spatial species richness pattern of four groups of terrestrial vertebrates in an area between two different biogeographic regions in northern SpainJOURNAL OF BIOGEOGRAPHY, Issue 4 2004David Nogués-Bravo Abstract Aim, To examine the influence of environmental variables on species richness patterns of amphibians, reptiles, mammals and birds and to assess the general usefulness of regional atlases of fauna. Location, Navarra (10,421 km2) is located in the north of the Iberian Peninsula, in a territory shared by Mediterranean and Eurosiberian biogeographic regions. Important ecological patterns, climate, topography and land-cover vary significantly from north to south. Methods, Maps of vertebrate distribution and climatological and environmental data bases were used in a geographic information systems framework. Generalized additive models and partial regression analysis were used as statistical tools to differentiate (A) the purely spatial fraction, (B) the spatially structured environmental fraction and (C) the purely environmental fraction. In this way, we can evaluate the explanatory capacity of each variable, avoiding false correlations and assessing true causality. Final models were obtained through a stepwise procedure. Results, Energy-related features of climate, aridity and land-cover variables show significant correlation with the species richness of reptiles, mammals and birds. Mammals and birds exhibit a spatial pattern correlated with variables such as aridity index and vegetation land-cover. However, the high values of the spatially structured environmental fraction B and the low values of the purely environmental fraction A suggest that these predictor variables have a limited causal relationship with species richness for these vertebrate groups. An increment in land-cover diversity is correlated with an increment of specific richness in reptiles, mammals and birds. No variables were found to be statistically correlated with amphibian species richness. Main conclusions, Although aridity and land-cover are the best predictor variables, their causal relationship with species richness must be considered with caution. Historical factors exhibiting a similar spatial pattern may be considered equally important in explaining the patterns of species richness. Also, land-cover diversity appears as an important factor for maintaining biological diversity. Partial regression analysis has proved a useful technique in dealing with spatial autocorrelation. These results highlight the usefulness of coarsely sampled data and cartography at regional scales to predict and explain species richness patterns for mammals and birds. The accuracy of models appears to be related to the range perception of each group and the scale of the information. [source] A model for the species,area,habitat relationshipJOURNAL OF BIOGEOGRAPHY, Issue 1 2003K. A. Triantis Abstract Aim, To propose a model (the choros model) for species diversity, which embodies number of species, area and habitat diversity and mathematically unifies area per se and habitat hypotheses. Location, Species richness patterns from a broad scale of insular biotas, both from island and mainland ecosystems are analysed. Methods, Twenty-two different data sets from seventeen studies were examined in this work. The r2 values and the Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC) were used in order to compare the quality of fit of the choros model with the Arrhenius species,area model. The classic method of log-log transformation was applied. Results, In twenty of the twenty-two cases studied, the proposed model gave a better fit than the classic species,area model. The values of z parameter derived from choros model are generally lower than those derived from the classic species,area equation. Main conclusions, The choros model can express the effects of area and habitat diversity on species richness, unifying area per se and the habitat hypothesis, which as many authors have noticed are not mutually exclusive but mutually supplementary. The use of habitat diversity depends on the specific determination of the ,habitat' term, which has to be defined based on the natural history of the taxon studied. Although the values of the z parameter are reduced, they maintain their biological significance as described by many authors in the last decades. The proposed model can also be considered as a stepping-stone in our understanding of the small island effect. [source] Spider family composition and species richness patterns in two savannah habitats along the eastern coastal plain of AfricaAFRICAN JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY, Issue 2 2010Charles R. Haddad Abstract The spider faunas of two savannah reserves along the eastern coastal plain of Africa are compared. Species richness was higher in the tropical area, with 493 species (54 families) from Mkomazi Game Reserve, Tanzania. Species richness was also high in the subtropics, with a total of 431 species (46 families) recorded from Ndumo Game Reserve, South Africa. Spider community structure was remarkably similar in the two reserves, with Salticidae, Gnaphosidae, Thomisidae, Theridiidae and Araneidae the most species-rich families in both reserves. Eleven of the fourteen most species rich families were the same. A similar proportion of families were represented by singleton and doubleton species. A genus- and species-level comparison of ten spider families indicates that while there is considerable overlap in the generic composition of the reserves (Sorensen's Quotient of similarity: all >0.650 except Linyphiidae, 0.166; Corinnidae, 0.500) there is little overlap between the species occurring in the two sites (0.000,0.571), which was particularly evident in the more species-rich families. A comparison of diversity of 57 families in each reserve with the spider biodiversity in the two sub-regions suggests that local biodiversity is largely determined by regional biogeographical influences rather than local ecological factors. Résumé On compare ici les araignées de deux réserves de savane situées le long de la plaine côtière de l'est de l'Afrique. La richesse en espèces était plus grande dans la région tropicale, avec 493 espèces (54 familles) dénombrées dans la Mkomazi Game Reserve, en Tanzanie. La richesse en espèces était aussi élevée dans la région subtropicale, avec un total de 431 espèces (46 familles) rapportées dans la Ndumo Game Reserve, en Afrique du Sud. La structure de la communauté des araignées était remarquablement semblable dans les deux réserves, et les Salticidae, Gnaphosidae, Thomisidae, Theridiidae et les Araneidae étaient aux deux endroits les familles les plus riches en espèces. Onze des quatorze familles les plus riches en espèces étaient les mêmes. Une proportion semblable de familles n'étaient représentées que par des espèces singletons ou doubletons. Une comparaison de dix familles d'araignées au niveau du genre ou de l'espèce indique que, s'il existe un important chevauchement de la composition générique des deux réserves (quotient de similitude de Sorensen : tous > 0,650 à l'exception des Linyphiidae, 0,166, et des Corinnidae, 0,500), il y a peu de chevauchement entre les espèces qui vivent dans les deux sites (0,000,0,571), ce qui était particulièrement évident dans les familles les plus riches en espèces. Une comparaison de la diversité de 57 familles dans chaque réserve avec la biodiversité des araignées des deux sous-régions suggère que la biodiversité locale était largement déterminée par des influences biogéographiques régionales plutôt que par des facteurs écologiques locaux. [source] Glacial refugia of temperate trees in Europe: insights from species distribution modellingJOURNAL OF ECOLOGY, Issue 6 2008Jens-Christian Svenning Summary 1The Pleistocene is an important period for assessing the impact of climate change on biodiversity. During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; 21 000 years ago), large glaciers and permafrost reached far south in Europe. Trees are traditionally thought to have survived only in scattered Mediterranean refugia (southern refugia hypothesis), but a recent proposal suggests that trees may have been much more widely and northerly distributed (northern refugia hypothesis). 2In this study, the southern vs. northern refugia hypotheses were investigated by estimating the potential LGM distributions of 7 boreal and 15 nemoral widespread European tree species using species distribution modelling. The models were calibrated using data for modern species distributions and climate and projected onto two LGM climate simulations for Europe. Five modelling variants were implemented. 3Models with moderate to good predictive ability for current species range limits and species richness patterns were developed. 4Broadly consistent results were obtained irrespective of the climate simulation and modelling variant used. Our results indicate that LGM climatic conditions suitable for boreal species existed across Central and Eastern Europe and into the Russian Plain. In contrast, suitable climatic conditions for nemoral tree species were largely restricted to the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions. Large proportions of these northern and southern regions would have been suitable for a number of boreal or boreal plus nemoral tree species, respectively. 5These findings are consistent with recent palaeoecological and phylogeographic data regarding LGM distributions of trees and other boreal and nemoral taxa. 6Synthesis. It is clear that the view of the LGM landscape in Europe as largely treeless, especially north of the Alps, needs to be revised. Trees were probably much more widespread during the LGM than hitherto thought, although patchily distributed at low densities due to low atmospheric CO2 concentrations and high wind-speeds. The findings presented here help explain the occurrence of mammal assemblages with mixtures of forest, tundra and steppe species at many localities in southern Central and Eastern Europe during the LGM, as well as the phylogeographic evidence for the extra-Mediterranean persistence of many boreal species. [source] Plant species and growth form richness along altitudinal gradients in the southwest Ethiopian highlandsJOURNAL OF VEGETATION SCIENCE, Issue 4 2010Wana Desalegn Abstract Questions: Do growth forms and vascular plant richness follow similar patterns along an altitudinal gradient? What are the driving mechanisms that structure richness patterns at the landscape scale? Location: Southwest Ethiopian highlands. Methods: Floristic and environmental data were collected from 74 plots, each covering 400 m2. The plots were distributed along altitudinal gradients. Boosted regression trees were used to derive the patterns of richness distribution along altitudinal gradients. Results: Total vascular plant richness did not show any strong response to altitude. Contrasting patterns of richness were observed for several growth forms. Woody, graminoid and climber species richness showed a unimodal structure. However, each of these morphological groups had a peak of richness at different altitudes: graminoid species attained maximum importance at a lower elevations, followed by climbers and finally woody species at higher elevations. Fern species richness increased monotonically towards higher altitudes, but herbaceous richness had a dented structure at mid-altitudes. Soil sand fraction, silt, slope and organic matter were found to contribute a considerable amount of the predicted variance of richness for total vascular plants and growth forms. Main Conclusions: Hump-shaped species richness patterns were observed for several growth forms. A mid-altitudinal richness peak was the result of a combination of climate-related water,energy dynamics, species,area relationships and local environmental factors, which have direct effects on plant physiological performance. However, altitude represents the composite gradient of several environmental variables that were interrelated. Thus, considering multiple gradients would provide a better picture of richness and the potential mechanisms responsible for the distribution of biodiversity in high-mountain regions of the tropics. [source] Negative native,exotic diversity relationship in oak savannas explained by human influence and climateOIKOS, Issue 9 2009Patrick L. Lilley Recent research has proposed a scale-dependence to relationships between native diversity and exotic invasions. At fine spatial scales, native,exotic richness relationships should be negative as higher native richness confers resistance to invasion. At broad scales, relationships should be positive if natives and exotics respond similarly to extrinsic factors. Yet few studies have examined both native and exotic richness patterns across gradients of human influence, where impacts could affect native and exotic species differently. We examined native,exotic richness relationships and extrinsic drivers of plant species richness and distributions across an urban development gradient in remnant oak savanna patches. In sharp contrast to most reported results, we found a negative relationship at the regional scale, and no relationship at the local scale. The negative regional-scale relationship was best explained by extrinsic factors, surrounding road density and climate, affecting natives and exotics in opposite ways, rather than a direct effect of native on exotic richness, or vice versa. Models of individual species distributions also support the result that road density and climate have largely opposite effects on native and exotic species, although simple life history traits (life form, dispersal mode) do not predict which habitat characteristics are important for particular species. Roads likely influence distributions and species richness by increasing both exotic propagule pressure and disturbance to native species. Climate may partially explain the negative relationship due to differing climatic preferences within the native and exotic species pools. As gradients of human influence are increasingly common, negative broad-scale native,exotic richness relationships may be frequent in such landscapes. [source] | ||||||||||