JOURNAL OF FOOD PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION, Issue 5 2002
F. NOURIAN
Bacterial soft rot, caused by Erwinia carotovora ssp. carotovora (Ecc), is a major disease in stored potatoes. The pathogen causes different physical, physiological and chemical changes in potatoes, which may affect the acceptability of raw and processed products. This study was carried out to evaluate the effect of disease severity on different physico-chemical and physiological properties of raw and cooked potatoes and to select the parameters most responsive to disease severity. Potatoes were inoculated with bacteria and incubated at 20C for different lengths of time to produce different levels of disease. As incubation time increased the volume of disease (VDS) increased, which in turn influenced the respiration rate (RR). In both raw and cooked potatoes, the physical changes (texture and color) associated with the progress of disease were reduced hardness, firmness and L value, and increased a and b values and total color difference (,E). The chemical changes were reduced ascorbic acid and pH, and increased reducing sugars, total sugars and titrable acidity along with the activities of peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase. The changes in physical and chemical parameters of raw and cooked potatoes during storage were described by fractional conversion equation models. All parameters were quite sensitive to disease except reducing sugars, peroxidase and PPO activity. The correlation matrix indicated that several of the quality parameters were related and thus most of them could be successfully used to predict tuber quality from disease. [source]

PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT IN DELPHINID CALVES: IMPLICATIONS FOR CALF SEPARATION AND MORTALITY DUE TO TUNA PURSE-SEINE SETS

MARINE MAMMAL SCIENCE, Issue 1 2007
Shawn R. Noren
Abstract Tuna purse-seiners in the eastern tropical Pacific (ETP) capture yellowfin tuna by chasing and encircling herds of associated dolphins. This fishery has caused mortality in 14 dolphin species (20 stocks) and has led to significant depletions of at least three stocks. Although observed dolphin mortality is currently low, set frequency remains high and dolphin stocks are not recovering at expected rates. Mortality of nursing calves permanently separated from their mothers during fishery operations may be an important factor in the lack of population recovery, based on the recent discovery that calves do not accompany 75%,95% of lactating females killed in the purse-seine nets. We assessed age-specific potential for mother,calf separations and subsequent mortality of calves by reviewing and synthesizing published data on physiological and behavioral development in delphinids from birth through 3 yr postpartum. Results indicate that evasive behavior of mothers, coupled with the developmental state of calves, provides a plausible mechanism for set-related mother,calf separations and subsequent mortality of calves. Potential for set-related separation and subsequent mortality is highest for 0,12-mo-old dolphins and becomes progressively lower with age as immature dolphins approach adult stamina and attain independence. [source]

Physiological and Behavioral Differences in Magellanic Penguin Chicks in Undisturbed and Tourist-Visited Locations of a Colony

CONSERVATION BIOLOGY, Issue 5 2005
BRIAN G. WALKER
corticoesterona; ecoturismo; perturbación humana; Spheniscus magellanicus Abstract:,Studies examining anthropogenic effects on wildlife typically focus on adults and on behavioral responses rather than the physiological consequences of human disturbances. Here we examined how Magellanic Penguin ( Spheniscus magellanicus) chicks living in either tourist-visited or undisturbed areas of a breeding colony were affected by human visitation by comparing the baseline and stress-induced levels of corticosterone during three periods of the breeding season. Newly hatched chicks in visited areas had higher corticosterone stress responses than newly hatched chicks in undisturbed areas (p =0.007), but baseline levels were similar (p =0.61). By 40,50 days of age and around fledging time, both visited and undisturbed chicks showed a robust corticosterone stress response to capture. Tourist-visited chicks did not flee when approached by humans, however, whereas undisturbed chicks fled significantly sooner (i.e., when approached no closer than 9 m; p < 0.0001). Although it is unknown whether Magellanic Penguin chicks raised in visited areas suffer negative consequences from the elevation of the corticosterone stress response at hatching, they do exhibit behavioral habituation to human contact by the time they are ready to fledge. Unlike adults living in tourist areas, however, fledging chicks in visited areas do not have a decreased stress response to capture and restraint. Our results show that the coupling of behavioral and physiological habituation in Magellanic Penguins is complex and life-history context may greatly affect the ability of wildlife to adapt to anthropogenic disturbances. Resumen:,Los estudios de los efectos antropogénicos sobre la vida silvestre se centran típicamente en adultos y en las respuestas conductuales en lugar de las consecuencias fisiológicas de las perturbaciones humanas. Aquí examinamos el efecto de la visita de humanos sobre pollos de pingüino (Spheniscus magellanicus) en áreas visitadas por turistas o no perturbadas mediante la comparación de los niveles, base e inducidos por estrés, de corticoesterona durante tres períodos de la temporada reproductiva. Los pollos recién eclosionados en áreas visitadas tuvieron mayor respuesta de la corticoesterona al estrés que los pollos recién eclosionados en áreas no perturbadas (p =0.007), pero los niveles básicos fueron similares (p =0.61). A los 40,50 días y en la etapa de volantón, los pollos visitados y no perturbados mostraron una marcada respuesta de la corticoesterona al estrés al ser capturados. Sin embargo, los pollos visitados por turistas no huyeron cuando se les acercaron humanos, mientras que los pollos no perturbados huyeron significativamente antes (i.e., acercamiento a más de 9 m; p < 0.0001). Aunque se desconoce si los pollos de pingüino criados en áreas visitadas sufren consecuencias negativas por la elevación de la corticosterona en respuesta al estrés al eclosionar, si presentan acostumbramiento conductual al contacto con humanos al momento que están listos para dejar el nido. Sin embargo, a diferencia de adultos que viven en áreas turísticas, los pollos volantones en las áreas visitadas no tienen una disminución en la respuesta al estrés cuando son capturados y sujetados. Nuestros resultados muestran la complejidad de la combinación del acostumbramiento conductual y fisiológico en Spheniscus magellanicus y que el contexto de la historia de vida puede afectar a la habilidad de la vida silvestre para adaptarse a las perturbaciones antropogénicas. [source]

Physiological and neuropsychological correlates of approach/withdrawal tendencies in preschool: Further examination of the behavioral inhibition system/behavioral activation system scales for young children

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOBIOLOGY, Issue 3 2004
Clancy Blair
Abstract This study examined a parent-report version of the Behavioral Inhibition System/Behavioral Activation System (BIS/BAS) scales, a measure of approach,withdrawal motivation, in 170 children between the ages of 3 to 5 years attending Head Start programs. Physiological measures included assessments of baseline salivary cortisol and change in cortisol in response to the assessment session, and resting and suppression estimates of cardiac vagal tone. Cognitive self-regulation was assessed with a peg-tapping measure of inhibitory control and an item-selection measure of cognitive set-shifting ability. Results indicated that higher level of parent-reported withdrawal motivation was associated with cortisol increase and that parent-reported approach motivation tended to be associated with cortisol decrease across the assessment session. Higher level of parent-reported withdrawal also was positively related to cognitive self-regulation while parent-reported approach was negatively related to cognitive self-regulation. Person-oriented analysis indicated that children characterized by both high level of approach and high level of withdrawal tended to exhibit lower resting vagal tone, higher initial cortisol, and minimal cortisol and vagal change. Overall, findings suggest that the parent-report version of the BIS/BAS scales works well as an indicator of children's reactivity to appetitive and aversive motivational stimuli. Directions for future research and implications of findings for the longitudinal study of temperament and personality are discussed. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Dev Psychobiol 45: 113-124, 2004. [source]

Physiological and molecular characterization of anaerobic benzene-degrading mixed cultures

ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY, Issue 2 2003
Ania C. Ulrich
Summary Nine distinct anaerobic benzene-degrading cultures were enriched from sediment samples from four different sites. These cultures used nitrate, sulphate or CO2 as electron acceptors. The shortest doubling times were observed in nitrate-reducing cultures, although cell yield was lowest in these cultures. The highest substrate concentration utilized and maximum absolute rates of benzene degraded (in µM day,1) were observed in methanogenic cultures. The microbial compositions of a methanogenic and nitrate-reducing culture were determined from a clone library of 16S rRNA genes. Five Bacterial 16S rRNA sequences, one of which resembled a clone previously found in a sulphate-reducing, benzene-degrading culture and four Archaeal 16S rRNA sequences were identified in a methanogenic culture. Four Bacterial and no Archaeal 16S rRNA sequences were identified in a nitrate-reducing culture. The relative abundance of the four nitrate-reducing putative species was determined by slot blot hybridization. Two green sulphur bacteria together formed 52% of the clone library, but were found to be less than 4% of the culture by slot blot analysis. One of the cloned 16S rRNA gene sequences comprised 70% of the culture and was phylogenetically 93% similar to both Azoarcus and Dechloromonas species, which have been shown to degrade aromatic compounds, including benzene, under nitrate-reducing conditions. [source]

Physiological and biochemical analyses of microcystin-RR toxicity to the cyanobacterium Synechococcus elongatus

ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY, Issue 6 2004
Zhi-quan Hu
Abstract Freshwater Microcystis may form dense blooms in eutrophic lakes. It is known to produce a family of related cyclic hepatopeptides (microcystins, MC) that constitute a threat to aquatic ecosystems. Most toxicological studies of microcystins have focused on aquatic animals and plants, with few examining the possible effects of microcystins on phytoplankton. In this study we chose the unicellular Synechococcus elongatus (one of the most studied and geographically most widely distributed cyanobacteria in the picoplankton) as the test material and investigated the biological parameters: growth, pigment (chlorophyll-a, phycocyanin), photosynthetic activity, nitrate reductase activity, and protein and carbohydrate content. The results revealed that microcystin-RR concentrations above 100 ,g · L,1 significantly inhibited the growth of Synechococcus elongatus. In addition, a change in color of the toxin-treated algae (chlorosis) was observed in the experiments. Furthermore, MC-RR markedly inhibited the synthesis of the pigments chlorophyll-a and phycocyanin. A drastic reduction in photochemical efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm) was found after a 96-h incubation. Changes in protein and carbohydrate concentrations and in nitrate reductase activity also were observed during the exposure period. This study aimed to evaluate the mechanisms of microcystin toxicity on a cyanobacterium, according to the physiological and biochemical responses of Synechococcus elongatus to different doses of microcystin-RR. The ecological role of microcystins as an allelopathic substance also is discussed in the article. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Environ Toxicol 19: 571,577, 2004. [source]

Physiological and morphological responses of the soil bacterium Rhodococcus opacus strain PD630 to water stress

FEMS MICROBIOLOGY ECOLOGY, Issue 2 2004
Héctor M. Alvarez
Abstract Rhodococcus opacus PD630 was investigated for physiological and morphological changes under water stress challenge. Gluconate- and hexadecane-grown cells were extremely resistant to these conditions, and survival accounted for up to 300 and 400 days; respectively, when they were subjected to slow air-drying. Results of this study suggest that strain PD630 has specific mechanisms to withstand water stress. Water-stressed cells were sensitive to the application of ethanol, high temperatures and oxidative stress, whereas they exhibited cross-protection solely against osmotic stress during the first hours of application. Results indicate that the resistance programme for water stress in R. opacus PD630 includes the following physiological and morphological changes, among others: (1) energetic adjustments with drastic reduction of the metabolic activity (,39% decrease during the first 24 h and about 90% after 190 days under dehydration), (2) endogenous metabolism using intracellular triacylglycerols for generating energy and precursors, (3) biosynthesis of different osmolytes such as trehalose, ectoine and hydroxyectoine, which may achieve a water balance through osmotic adjustment and may explain the overlap between water and osmotic stress, (4) adjustments of the cell-wall through the turnover of mycolic acid species, as preliminary experiments revealed no evident changes in the thickness of the cell envelope, (5) formation of short fragmenting-cells as probable resistance forms, (6) production of an extracellular slime covering the surface of colonies, which probably regulates internal and external c anges in water potential, and (7) formation of compact masses of cells. This contributes to understanding the water stress resistance processes in the soil bacterium R. opacus PD630. [source]

Physiological and oenological traits of different Dekkera/Brettanomyces bruxellensis strains under wine-model conditions

FEMS YEAST RESEARCH, Issue 7 2008
Ileana Vigentini
Abstract Contamination of wine by Dekkera/Brettanomyces bruxellensis is mostly due to the production of off-flavours identified as vinyl- and especially ethyl-phenols, but these yeasts can also produce several other spoiling metabolites, such as acetic acid and biogenic amines. Little information is available about the correlation between growth, viability and off-flavour and biogenic amine production. In the present work, five strains of Dekkera bruxellensis isolated from wine were analysed over 3 months in wine-like environment for growth, cell survival, carbon source utilization and production of volatile phenols and biogenic amines. Our data indicate that the wine spoilage potential of D. bruxellensis is strain dependent, being strictly associated with the ability to grow under oenological conditions. 4-Ethyl-phenol and 4-ethyl-guaiacol production ranged between 0 and 2.7 and 2 mg L,1, respectively, depending on the growth conditions. Putrescine, cadaverine and spermidine were the biogenic amines found. [source]

Dehydration tolerance and water vapour absorption in two species of soil-dwelling Collembola by accumulation of sugars and polyols

FUNCTIONAL ECOLOGY, Issue 5 2001
M. Holmstrup
Summary 1,Physiological and biochemical responses to desiccation were studied in two species of hygrophilic Collembola, Folsomia fimetaria L. and Protaphorura armata Tullberg. The temporal changes in water content, body fluid osmotic pressure, and accumulation of sugars and polyols during desiccation stress, equivalent to severe soil drought are reported. 2,Both species initially lost about 50% of their initial content of osmotically active water. Within 7 days F. fimetaria had re-established their preliminary water content by absorbing water vapour from the atmosphere. Protaphorura armata also significantly increased their water content over the following 10 days. 3,Both species were able to resume their hyperosmotic status relative to the desiccating environment they were placed in. The accumulation of myo-inositol and two other unidentified compounds (F. fimetaria) and trehalose (P. armata) made an important contribution to this phenomenon. 4,These results suggest that water vapour absorption by accumulation of sugars and polyols may be widespread in soil-dwelling Collembola. [source]

Ozone exposure over two growing seasons alters root-to-shoot ratio and chemical composition of birch (Betula pendula Roth)

GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY, Issue 10 2003
K. Yamaji
Abstract Physiological and chemical responses of 17 birch (Betula pendula Roth) clones to 1.5,1.7 × ambient ozone were studied in an open-field experiment over two growing seasons. The saplings were studied for growth, foliar visible injuries, net photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, and chlorophyll, carotenoid, Rubisco, total soluble protein, macronutrient and phenolic concentrations in leaves. Elevated ozone resulted in growth enhancement, changes in shoot-to-root (s/r) ratio, visible foliar injuries, reduced stomatal conductance, lower late-season net photosynthesis, foliar nutrient imbalance, changes in phenolic composition, and reductions in pigment, Rubisco and soluble protein contents indicating accelerated leaf senescence. Majority of clones responded to ozone by changing C allocation towards roots, by stomatal closure (reduced ozone uptake), and by investment in low-cost foliar antioxidants to avoid and tolerate ozone stress. A third of clones, showing increased s/r ratio, relied on inducible efficient high-cost antioxidants, and enhanced leaf production to compensate ozone-caused decline in leaf-level net photosynthesis. However, the best ozone tolerance was found in two s/r ratio-unaffected clones showing a high constitutive amount of total phenolics, investment in low-cost antioxidants and N distribution to leaves, and lower stomatal conductance under ozone stress. The results highlight the importance of phenolic compounds in ozone defence mechanisms in the birch population. Depending on the genotype, ozone detoxification was improved by an increase in either efficient high-cost or less efficient low-cost antioxidative phenolics, with close connections to whole-plant physiology. [source]

Pyogenic liver abscesses: a comparison of older and younger patients

HPB, Issue 3 2001
JA Alvarez
Background Pyogenic liver abscess is a life-threatening disease. Few studies have specifically explored the way in which the clinical features and management of elderly patients with pyogenic liver abscess differ from those of younger individuals. Methods A retrospective study was undertaken to evaluate whether older patients with pyogenic liver abscess have distinctive presenting features or whether their management and outcome differ from that of younger patients. A total of 133 patients with liver abscess treated in five hospitals during 13 years comprised two groups: 78 patients aged 60 years or above (older group) and 55 patients below age 60 years (younger group). Clinical features, laboratory data, imaging and microbiological findings, management and outcome were determined in each group. Results The older group contained more patients with associated diseases (p = 0.03), nausea and vomiting at presentation (p = 0.02), higher APACHE II (Acute Physiological and Chronic Health Evaluation II scale) score (p < 0.001) and blood urea nitrogen (p < 0.001) and serum creatinine levels (p = 0.002). Multiple abscess (p = 0.05) and bilobar (p = 0.03) abscess were also commoner in this group. By contrast, in the younger group men predominated (p = 0.01), and there was a higher overall complication rate (p = 0.05). Time to diagnosis, hospital mortality rate and other variables analysed were similar in both groups. Discussion Elderly patients with pyogenic liver abscess have some subtle differences in clinical and laboratory presentation, but these do not appear to delay diagnosis. Active management is tolerated well, with a lower morbidity rate than in younger patients and no difference in the mortality rate. [source]

Cue reactivity as a predictor of outcome with bulimia nervosa

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EATING DISORDERS, Issue 3 2002
Frances A. Carter
Abstract The present study sought to evaluate specific hypotheses concerning the relation between cue reactivity and outcome among women with bulimia nervosa. Participants were 135 women aged between 17 and 45 years with a current, primary diagnosis of bulimia nervosa who participated in a randomized clinical trial evaluating the additive efficacy of exposure and nonexposure-based behavior therapy, to a core of cognitive behavior therapy (CBT). Physiological, self-report, and behavioral measures of cue reactivity to individualized high-risk binge foods were obtained at pretreatment and posttreatment. Primary, secondary, and tertiary outcome measures are reported for posttreatment and six-month follow-up. Self-report measures of cue reactivity at posttreatment were significantly positively associated with symptomatology at posttreatment. Cue reactivity at posttreatment was significantly positively associated with symptomatology at 6-month follow-up. However, cue reactivity at posttreatment did not contribute to the prediction of outcome at follow-up over and above posttreatment outcome. The notion that pretreatment cue reactivity may predict which treatment modality will be most beneficial (exposure or nonexposure-based treatment), as measured by reductions in symptomatology at posttreatment could not be supported. Implications for future research are discussed. © 2002 by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Int J Eat Disord 31: 240,250, 2002; DOI 10.1002/eat.10041 [source]

Physiological and biochemical changes of different fresh-cut mango cultivars stored at 5 °C

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, Issue 1 2008
Gustavo A. Gonzalez-Aguilar
Summary Treatments to inhibit browning, decay and to extend shelf life of ,Keitt', ,Kent' and ,Ataulfo' mango cultivars as a fresh-cut produce were investigated. Combinations of calcium chloride (CaCl2), antioxidants [ascorbic acid (AA), citric acid (CA)] and two commercial film coatings resulted in a reduction of browning and deterioration of fresh-cut mangoes stored at 5 °C, especially for the Ataulfo cultivar. The use of CaCl2 + AA + CA significantly reduced colour deterioration, loss of firmness and did not affect sensory characteristics of fresh-cut mango, with a larger effect in the Ataulfo cultivar. In general, these treatments prevented loss of sugar and vitamin C of cubes during storage at 5 °C. Shelf life of this cultivar was 21 days, while that of Keitt and Kent was only 9 and 12 days, respectively. There is a correlation between carotene and vitamin C content of Ataulfo mango and its longer shelf life compared with the other cultivars. [source]

Different Patterns of Physiological and Molecular Response to Drought in Seedlings of Malt- and Feed-type Barleys (Hordeum vulgare)

JOURNAL OF AGRONOMY AND CROP SCIENCE, Issue 1 2010
M. Rapacz
Abstract A number of physiological and molecular characteristics are proposed as selection criteria for drought tolerance. This study measured the associations between physiological and molecular characteristics of drought response in malting and fodder spring barleys. Plants of 13 malt- and 14 feed-type Polish genotypes were exposed to drought at the four-leaf stage for 7 days. Drought susceptibility indexes (DSI) were calculated for membrane integrity, water status, gas exchange and PSII photochemical activity. Accumulation of HVA1 and SRG6 transcripts in drought was measured with real-time PCR. A wide range of variation in the drought response was observed among studied genotypes. Malting barleys were less sensitive to drought than feed-barleys according to all the traits studied. In both groups, different patterns of relationships between traits were observed. In malting genotypes only, CO2 assimilation rates in drought, as well as PSII efficiency were related to both water content and the accumulation of HVA1 transcript in leaves. On the other hand the SRG6 expression was highly correlated in both groups of barley with the photochemical efficiency of PSII. The results suggest that different physiological, biochemical and molecular characteristics should be applied in the selection towards drought resistance in the case of malting and fodder barleys. [source]

Assessment of Growth, Physiological and Biochemical Parameters and Activities of Antioxidative Enzymes in Salinity Tolerant and Sensitive Basmati Rice Varieties

JOURNAL OF AGRONOMY AND CROP SCIENCE, Issue 6 2007
M. P. Singh
Abstract This investigation was undertaken to compare the level of salinity tolerance of the newly bred CSR-30 basmati rice variety with that of the salinity sensitive HBC-19 and Pokkali rice varieties. Twenty-one-day-old hydroponically raised seedlings at 6 and 12 dS m,1 were investigated for growth, photosynthetic rate, chlorophyll content, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase-oxygenase (Rubisco) activity, relative water content (RWC), membrane stability index (MSI), lipid peroxidation, Na/K ratio and activities and gene expression of various isoforms of antioxidative enzymes. Salinity stress led to reduction in shoot length, leaf area, dry weight, RWC, MSI, rate of photosynthesis, chlorophyll content and Rubisco activity in all the three rice varieties. The levels of reduction in these parameters were maximal in HBC-19 followed by those in CSR-30 and Pokkali respectively. Cumulative superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity increased in Pokkali and CSR-30 in consonance with increase in salinity stress while it decreased in HBC-19. The Mn-SOD activity however, was enhanced in all three varieties in the presence of salinity stress while the activities of Fe-SOD, Cu/Zn-SOD and ascorbate peroxidase were decreased in HBC-19 when compared with CSR-30 and Pokkali. The activity of catalase (CAT) was higher in HBC-19 when compared with its activity in CSR-30 and Pokkali. The levels of gene expressions of the three isoforms of SOD ascertained by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction were not necessarily indicative of the activities of the corresponding enzymes. Thus, despite the maximal enhancement in gene expression of Fe-SOD in HBC-19 in response to salinity stress, the activity of this enzyme in HBC-19 remained low. Similarly, despite a marginal increase in gene expression of Cu-Zn SOD in the three varieties, its activity was significantly higher in Pokkali and CSR-30 when compared with that in HBC-19. A significant enhancement in the activity of CAT at 12 dS m,1 in HBC-19 when compared with CSR-30 and Pokkali might confer a degree of tolerance to H2O2 stress in this variety in the presence of higher levels of NaCl at the seedling stage. [source]

Physiological and Biochemical Responses of Hexaploid and Tetraploid Wheat to Drought Stress

JOURNAL OF AGRONOMY AND CROP SCIENCE, Issue 4 2000
V. Chandrasekar
An experiment was conducted to investigate the physiological and biochemical responses of two hexaploids viz., C 306 (water stress tolerant) and Hira (water stress susceptible), and two tetraploids, HW 24 (Triticum dicoccum) and A 9-30-1 (Triticum durum) wheat genotypes to water stress under pot culture condition. Water stress was imposed for a uniform period of 10 days at 50, 60 and 70 days after sowing (DAS) and observations were recorded at 60, 70 and 80 DAS. Total dry matter and plant height were recorded at harvest. Water stress caused a decline in relative water content (RWC), chlorophyll and carotenoid content, membrane stability and nitrate reductase activity and increased accumulation of proline at all stages and abscisic acid (ABA) at 80 DAS in all the genotypes. Both the tetraploids showed a lower reduction in RWC and highest ABA accumulation under water stress. Among the hexaploids Hira showed the most decline in RWC and the lowest ABA accumulation. The tetraploids also showed comparatively higher carotenoid content and membrane stability, closely followed by C 306, while Hira showed the minimum response under water stress. Nitrate reductase activity and chlorophyll content under irrigated conditions were highest in Hira but under water stress the lowest per cent decline was observed in C 306, followed by HW 24, A 9-30-1, and Hira. Proline accumulation under water stress conditions was highest in hexaploids C 306 and Hira and lowest in tetraploids HW 24 and A 9-30-1. Tetraploids HW 24, followed by A 9-30-1 maintained higher plant height and total dry matter (TDM) under water stress and also showed a lower per cent decline under stress than hexaploids C 306 and Hira. From the results it is clear that proline accumulation did not contribute to better drought tolerance of tetraploids than hexaploids. It is also apparent that water stress tolerance is the result of the cumulative action of various physiological processes, and all the parameters/processes may not be positively associated with the drought tolerance of a particular tolerant genotype. [source]

Physiological and molecular analysis of the stress response of Saccharomyces cerevisiae imposed by strong inorganic acid with implication to industrial fermentations

JOURNAL OF APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY, Issue 1 2010
H.F. De Melo
Abstract Aims:, This work aimed to identify the molecular mechanism that allows yeast cells to survive at low pH environments such as those of bioethanol fermentation. Methods and Results:, The industrial strain JP1 cells grown at pH 2 was evaluated by microarray analysis showing that most of the genes induced at low pH were part of the general stress response (GSR). Further, an acid-tolerant yeast mutant was isolated by adaptive selection that was prone to grow at low pH in inorganic but weak organic acid. It showed higher viability under acid-temperature synergistic treatment. However, it was deficient in some physiological aspects that are associated with defects in protein kinase A (PKA) pathway. Microarray analysis showed the induction of genes involved in inhibition of RNA and protein synthesis. Conclusions:, The results point out that low pH activates GSR, mainly heat shock response, that is important for long-term cell survival and suggest that a fine regulatory PKA-dependent mechanism that might affect cell cycle in order to acquire tolerance to acid environment. Significance and Impact of the Study:, These findings might guide the construction of a high-fermentative stress-tolerant industrial yeast strain that can be used in complex industrial fermentation processes. [source]

Role of EG-VEGF in human placentation: Physiological and pathological implications

JOURNAL OF CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR MEDICINE, Issue 8b 2009
Pascale Hoffmann
Abstract Pre-eclampsia (PE), the major cause of maternal morbidity and mortality, is thought to be caused by shallow invasion of the maternal decidua by extravillous trophoblasts (EVT). Data suggest that a fine balance between the expressions of pro- and anti-invasive factors might regulate EVT invasiveness. Recently, we showed that the expression of the new growth factor endocrine gland-derived vascular endothelial growth factor (EG-VEGF) is high in early pregnancy but falls after 11 weeks, suggesting an essential role for this factor in early pregnancy. Using human villous explants and HTR-8/SVneo, a first trimester extravillous trophoblast cell line, we showed differential expression of EG-VEGF receptors, PKR1 and PKR2, in the placenta and demonstrated that EG-VEGF inhibits EVT migration, invasion and tube-like organisation. EG-VEGF inhibitory effect on invasion was supported by a decrease in matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and MMP-9 production. Interference with PKR2 expression, using specific siRNAs, reversed the EG-VEGF-induced inhibitory effects. Furthermore, we determined EG-VEGF circulating levels in normal and PE patients. Our results showed that EG-VEGF levels were highest during the first trimester of pregnancy and decreased thereafter to non-pregnant levels. More important, EG-VEGF levels were significantly elevated in PE patients compared with age-matched controls. These findings identify EG-VEGF as a novel paracrine regulator of trophoblast invasion. We speculate that a failure to correctly down-regulate placental expression of EG-VEGF at the end of the first trimester of pregnancy might lead to PE. [source]

Physiological and biochemical traits involved in the genotypic variability to salt tolerance of Tunisian Cakile maritima

AFRICAN JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY, Issue 4 2009
Megdiche Wided
Abstract Cakile maritima (family: Brassicaceae) was collected from three provenances belonging to different bioclimatic stages (humid, semi arid and arid) in Tunisia to study their eco-physiological and biochemical responses to salinity. Seedlings were cultivated on inert sand for 20 days under NaCl treatments (0, 100, 200, 400 mm NaCl). Plant response to salinity was provenance- and salt-dependent. At 100 mm NaCl, growth parameters (leaf biomass, area, number per plant and relative growth rate) were improved in plants from Jerba (originating from arid bioclimatic stage) compared with the control, while growth was reduced in those from Tabarka (from humid area). High salt levels (400 mm NaCl) decreased the plant growth in the three provenances, but plants in Tabarka were the most salt sensitive. The relative salt tolerance of plants from Jerba and Bekalta provenances was associated with low levels of malondialdehyde as well as of electrolyte leakage and endoproteolytic activity. Salt reduced leaf hydration, the decrease in water content being dose-dependent and more pronounced in Tabarka. Increase in salinity led to significant increase in leaf succulence and decrease in leaf water potential, especially in Jerba plants. The plants from the latter displayed the highest leaf levels of Na+ and Cl,, proline, soluble carbohydrates, soluble proteins, and polyphenols. Overall, the higher salt tolerance of plants from Jerba provenance, and to a lower extent of those from Bekalta, may be partly related to their better capacity for osmotic adjustment and to limit oxidative damage when salt-challenged. Résumé Cakile maritima a été collecté (famille des Brassicaceae) dans trois provenances appartenant à des étages bioclimatiques différentes (humide, semi-aride et aride) de la Tunisie, dans le but d'étudier leurs réponses éco-physiologique et biochimique à la salinité. Des plantules ont été cultivées dans du sable inerte pendant vingt jours avec des doses croissantes de NaCl (0, 100, 200 et 400 mm NaCl). La réponse de Cakile maritima dépend de la provenance et de la salinité du milieu. A 100 mm de NaCl, les paramètres de croissance (biomasse, surface et nombre des feuilles par plante ainsi que le taux de la croissance relative) ont été améliorés chez Djerba (zone bioclimatique aride) par comparaison aux plantes témoins, tandis que la croissance a été réduite chez Tabarka (zone humide). A la plus forte dose de sel (400 mm), une réduction de la croissance des trois provenances a été enregistrée avec une nette sensibilité chez les plantes de la provenance Tabarka. La tolérance relative des deux provenances Djerba et Bekalta est associée à une faible teneur en malondialdéhyde ainsi qu'une fuite d'électrolyte et activité endo-protéolytique modérées. Le traitement salin a réduit l'hydratation des feuilles et cette diminution du contenu en eau est dose-dépendante et elle est plus prononcée chez Tabarka. En outre, l'augmentation de la salinité du milieu a entrainé une élévation de la succulence des feuilles concomitante à une diminution du potentiel hydrique notamment chez Djerba. Les plantes de cette dernière ont été les plus riches en Na+ et Cl - , en proline, carbohydrates, en protéines solubles et en polyphénols. En général, la tolérance au sel de la provenance Djerba, et à moindre degré Bekalta, est en partie reliée à la meilleure capacité d'ajustement osmotique et la limitation des dommages oxydatifs sous stress salin. [source]

2-Arachidonoylglycerol, an endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligand in the nervous tissue

JOURNAL OF NEUROCHEMISTRY, Issue 2003
K. Waku
2-Arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) is a unique molecular species of monoacylglycerol identified as an endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligand by us and Mechoulam and co-workers (1). We found that 2-AG possesses binding activity toward the cannabinoid receptor in rat brain. We also found that 2-AG induces transient elevation of the intracellular Ca2+ concentration in NG108-15 cells. The response induced by 2-AG was blocked by pretreatment of cells with a cannabinoid CB1 receptor-specific antagonist SR141716A, indicating that CB1 receptor is involved in the response. Based on the results of structure,activity relationship experiments, we concluded that the cannabinoid CB1 receptor in the nervous system is originally and primary a 2-AG receptor. 2-AG was produced and released from nervous tissues following various types of stimulation through enhanced breakdown of arachidonic acid-containing phospholipids such as inositol phospholipids. Physiological and pathophysiological roles of 2-AG in the nervous system will be discussed. [source]

Complementation of Physiological and Behavioral Defects by a Slowpoke Ca2+ -Activated K+ Channel Transgene

JOURNAL OF NEUROCHEMISTRY, Issue 3 2000
Robert Brenner
Abstract: The Drosophila slowpoke gene encodes a large conductance calcium-activated potassium channel used in neurons, muscle, and some epithelial cells. Tissue-specific transcriptional promoters and alternative mRNA splicing generate a large array of transcripts. These distinct transcripts are thought to tailor the properties of the channel to the requirements of the cell. Presumably, a single splice variant cannot satisfy the specific needs of all cell types. To test this, we examined whether a single slowpoke splice variant was capable of complementing all slowpoke behavioral phenotypes. Null mutations in slowpoke cause animals to be semiflightless and to manifest an inducible "sticky-feet" phenotype. The well-characterized slowpoke transcriptional control region was used to direct the expression of a single slowpoke splice variant (cDNA H13) in transgenic flies. The endogenous gene in these flies had been inactivated by the slo4 mutation. Action-potential recordings and voltage-clamp recordings demonstrated the production of functional channels from the transgene. The transgene completely complemented the flight defect, but not the sticky-feet phenotype. We conclude that distinct slowpoke channel isoforms, produced by alternative splicing, are not interchangeable and are required for proper function of different cell types. [source]

The Ghrelin/Obestatin Balance in the Physiological and Pathological Control of Growth Hormone Secretion, Body Composition and Food Intake

JOURNAL OF NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY, Issue 7 2010
R. Hassouna
Ghrelin and obestatin are two gastrointestinal peptides obtained by post-translational processing of a common precursor, preproghrelin. Ghrelin is an orexigenic and adipogenic peptide and a potent growth hormone secretagogue (GHS) modified by the enzyme ghrelin- O -acyl-transferase to bind and activate its receptor, the GHS-R. The ghrelin/GHS-R pathway is complex and the effects of ghrelin on GH secretion, adiposity and food intake appear to be relayed by distinct mechanisms involving different transduction signals and constitutive activity for the GH-R, different cofactors as modulators of endogenous ghrelin signalling and/or alternative ghrelin receptors. The discovery of obestatin in 2005 brought an additional level of complexity to this fascinating system. Obestatin was initially identified as an anorexigenic peptide and as the cognate ligand for GPR39, but its effect on food intake and its ability to activate GPR39 are still controversial. Although several teams failed to reproduce the anorexigenic actions of obestatin, this peptide has been shown to antagonise GH secretion and food intake induced by ghrelin and could be an interesting pharmacological tool to counteract the actions of ghrelin. Ghrelin and obestatin immunoreactivities are recovered in the blood with an ultradian pulsatility and their concentrations in plasma vary with the nutritional status of the body. It is still a matter of debate whether both hormones are regulated by independent mechanisms and whether obestatin is a physiologically relevant peptide. Nevertheless, a significant number of studies show that the ghrelin/obestatin ratio is modified in anorexia nervosa and obesity. This suggests that the ghrelin/obestatin balance could be essential to adapt the body's response to nutritional challenges. Although measuring ghrelin and obestatin in plasma is challenging because many forms of the peptides circulate, more sensitive and selective assays to detect the different preproghrelin-derived peptides are being developed and may be the key to obtaining a better understanding of their roles in different physiological and pathological conditions. [source]

Physiological and Biochemical Characteristics of Iranian Strains of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri, the Causal Agent of Citrus bacterial Canker Disease

JOURNAL OF PHYTOPATHOLOGY, Issue 2 2001
M. Mohammadi
Twenty-four strains of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri (Xac), the causal agent of bacterial canker of citrus, isolated from Mexican lime (Citrus aurantifolia) and lemon (Citrus limon) in southern Iran, were characterized phenotypically. Strains were all pathogenic on C. aurantifolia. Sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis revealed slight differences in soluble protein profiles among the strains. Based on host range specificity and phenotypic characteristics, representative strains were differentiated into two groups of Asiatic (A) and atypical Asiatic (aA) forms. DNA fingerprinting analysis using EcoRI as the restriction endonuclease showed a negligible difference in restriction pattern between the two groups. On the basis of isozymic analysis, the two groups were distinct with respect to superoxide dismutase (SOD) and esterase (EST) banding patterns. Plasmid DNA profile analysis showed that the bacterial strains were different from each other in terms of plasmid number and molecular weight. Phage typing study revealed that most of group A strains were susceptible to Cp1 and/or Cp2 and some were resistant to both phage types including the strain in aA group. Bacteriocin production test indicated that there was a variation among Xac strains using different indicators for each bacteriocin producer. It is concluded that the Iranian strains of Xac are heterogeneous and constitute a subgroup(s) within the pathotype A. Physiologische und biochemische Merkmale iranischer Stämme von Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri, dem Erreger des bakteriellen Zitruskrebses Vierundzwanzig Stämme von Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri, dem Erreger des bakteriellen Zitruskrebses, wurden von mexikanischen Sauren Limetten (Citrus aurantifolia) und Zitronen (Citrus limon) im Südiran isoliert und phänotypisch charakterisiert. Alle Stämme waren für C. aurantifolia pathogen. Eine SDS-PAGE-Analyse zeigte, daß zwischen den Stämmen geringfügige Unterschiede bei den Profilen der löslichen Proteine bestanden. Auf Grundlage der Spezifität des Wirtsspektrums und phänotypischer Merkmale wurden repräsentative Stämme in die zwei Gruppen asiatische (A) und atypische asiatische (aA) Formen eingeteilt. Eine Analyse mit DNA-Fingerabdrücken, wobei EcoRI als Restriktionsendonuclease diente, zeigte einen vernachlässigbar kleinen Unterschied bei den Restriktionsmustern der beiden Gruppen. Die Isoenzymanalyse ergab Unterschiede zwischen beiden Gruppen bezüglich der Bandenmuster von Superoxiddismutase (SOD) und Esterase (EST). Eine Analyse der Plasmid-DNA-Profile zeigte, daß die Bakterienstämme unterschiedliche Plasmidzahlen und verschiedene Molekülmassen aufwiesen. Eine Phagentypisierung ergab, daß die meisten Stämme der Gruppe A anfällig für Cp1 und/oder Cp2 waren; einige waren resistent gegen beide Phagentypen, darunter der Stamm in der aA-Gruppe. Ein Test der Bacteriocinproduktion ergab, daß die Xac -Stämme variierten; hier wurden verschiedene Indikatoren für jeden Bakteriocinbildner verwendet. Es wird gefolgert, daß die iranischen Stämme von Xac heterogen sind und eine oder mehrere Untergruppen innerhalb des Pathotyps A bilden. [source]

Physiological, hormonal and molecular mechanisms regulating chilling injury in horticultural species.

JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE, Issue 4 2009
Postharvest technologies applied to reduce its impact
Abstract The storage of fruits and vegetables at low temperature near the freezing point is the foremost technology applied to retard postharvest ripening and to extend the shelf-life period of agricultural products. However, most tropical and subtropical produce is sensitive to chilling injury, which constitutes a set of physiological alterations caused by exposure to low temperatures for variable time periods, to the detriment of quality. This article is a thorough review of the physiological, hormonal and molecular mechanisms involved in the induction and development of this physiopathy. Also, the different postharvest technologies of a chemical, physical or biotechnological nature assayed in research or applied in the agro-food industry with the aim of inhibiting or delaying the emergence of chilling injury in sensitive plant produce of agricultural interest are reviewed. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry [source]

Metabolic response to two hydrocooling temperatures in sweet cherries cv Lapins and cv Sunburst

JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE, Issue 12 2006
Rafael Alique
Abstract Physiological and metabolic characterisation and analysis of response to two hydrocooling temperatures in cv Sunburst (early season) and cv Lapins (mid-season) cherries during post-harvest life has been studied. Samples were hydrocooled with water at 1 °C to reach 6 °C inside the fruit (HC-6C) and 2 °C (HC-2C) inside the fruit. After harvesting, Sunburst samples presented higher respiration rates and lower malic acid and sorbitol contents than Lapins. Glucose and fructose contents were similar in the two varieties. Sunburst control exhibited a higher respiration rate than Lapins and a higher rate of conversion from sorbitol to fructose. The change of glucose and malic acid consumption over 4 days at 20 °C was similar for the two varieties. Hydrocooling reduced respiration and the consumption of respiratory substrates. The residual effect of hydrocooling was especially significant in cherries of both varieties that had been pre-cooled to 2 °C. Hydrocooling delayed loss of skin and pulp firmness, and reduced loss of titratable acid and soluble solid contents over 4 days at 20 °C in both varieties. Hydrocooling to 2 °C checked loss of quality with respect to controls for both varieties after 4 days at 20 °C. Lapins showed better conservation properties than Sunburst under all the experimental storage conditions. Hydrocooling reduced total losses in both varieties, especially in cherries pre-cooled to 2 °C. Hydrocooling also had several residual effects: reduction of the respiration rate and consumption of respiratory substrates, and slowing of loss of quality, particularly for Lapins. Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry [source]

Physiological and behavioral responses of Bathynerita naticoidea (Gastropoda: Neritidae) and Methanoaricia dendrobranchiata (Polychaeta: Orbiniidae) to hypersaline conditions at a brine pool cold seep

MARINE ECOLOGY, Issue 1 2007
Ahna L. Van Gaest
Abstract Bathynerita naticoidea (Gastropoda: Neritidae) and Methanoaricia dendrobranchiata (Polychaeta: Orbiniidae) are two of the most abundant invertebrates associated with cold-seep mussel beds in the Gulf of Mexico. At the methane seep known as Brine Pool NR-1 (27 °43.415 N, 91 °16.756 W; 650 m depth), which is surrounded by a broad band of mussels (Bathymodiolus childressi), these species have distinctly different patterns of abundance, with the gastropod being found mostly at the outer edge of the mussel bed (average density in November 2003: 817 individuals·m,2 in outer zone, 20·m,2 in inner zone) and the polychaete being found almost exclusively near the inner edge (average density in November 2003: 3155 individuals·m,2 in inner zone, 0·m,2 in outer zone), adjacent to the brine pool itself. The salinity of the brine pool exceeds 120, so we hypothesized that M. dendrobranchiata should be more tolerant of high salinities than B. naticoidea. The opposite proved to be true. The gastropods were capable of withstanding salinities at least as high as 85, whereas the polychaetes died at salinities higher than 75. Both species were osmoconformers over the range of salinities (35,75) tested. Behavioral responses of B. naticoidea to salinities of 50, 60, and 70 were investigated in inverted vertical haloclines. Gastropods generally did not enter water of salinity greater than 60, but tolerated short periods at 60. Behavioral avoidance of brine should limit the vertical distribution of B. naticoidea in the inner zone to the top 2.5,5 cm of the mussel bed. Behavior is also a likely (though unproven) mechanism for controlling horizontal distribution of this species across the mussel bed. Methanoaricia dendrobranchiata can tolerate short excursions into the brine, but probably avoids hypersaline conditions by aggregating on the tops of the mussels. [source]

Physiological and growth responses of the montane bryophyte Racomitrium lanuginosum to atmospheric nitrogen deposition

NEW PHYTOLOGIST, Issue 1 2003
I. S. K. Pearce
Summary ,,The effects of nitrogen (N) deposition on the moss Racomitrium lanuginosum within montane heath in Scotland were investigated over 5 yr. ,,Permanent field plots were sprayed with KNO3 or NH4Cl solutions, at doses equivalent to 10 and 40 kg N ha,1 yr,1, in 3,6 applications each summer. ,,Racomitrium growth and cover were severely reduced by N addition, whilst the proportion of dead shoots greatly increased. N dose decreased inducibility of shoot nitrate reductase activity (NRA), suggesting that N saturation of Racomitrium occurred, and caused an increase in potassium leakage. At high dosage, effects of NH4+ were more detrimental than NO3,. ,,Physiological responses to N indicate that the habitat's critical load (CL) is exceeded by addition of 10 kg N ha,1 yr,1. The differential toxicity of the two forms of N suggests that predominant ion type in deposition should be taken into consideration when CLs are set. In contrast to tissue N, NRA correlated well with shoot growth, and may thus be a useful biological indicator of moss condition. [source]

Physiological and performance effects of glycerol hyperhydration and rehydration

NUTRITION REVIEWS, Issue 12 2009
Simon P Van Rosendal
Studies have shown that beverages containing glycerol can enhance and maintain hydration status and may improve endurance exercise performance by attenuating adverse physiological changes associated with dehydration. Improvements to performance include increased endurance time to exhaustion by up to 24%, or a 5% increase in power or work. However, some studies have found no performance benefits during either prolonged exercise or specific skill and agility tests. In studies that have shown benefits, the improvements have been associated with thermoregulatory and cardiovascular changes. These include increased plasma volume and sweat rates, as well as reduced core temperature and ratings of perceived exertion. In a very small number of subjects, glycerol consumption has been associated with side-effects including nausea, gastrointestinal discomfort, dizziness, and headaches. In summary, while glycerol and fluid ingestion results in hyperhydration, the documented benefits to exercise performance remain inconsistent. [source]

Neandertal cold adaptation: Physiological and energetic factors

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF HUMAN BIOLOGY, Issue 5 2002
A. Theodore Steegmann Jr.
European Neandertals employed a complex set of physiological cold defenses, homologous to those seen in contemporary humans and nonhuman primates. While Neandertal morphological patterns, such as foreshortened extremities and low relative surface-area, may have explained some of the variance in cold resistance, it is suggested the adaptive package was strongly dependent on a rich array of physiological defenses. A summary of the environmental cold conditions in which the Neandertals lived is presented, and a comparative ethnographic model from Tierra del Fuego is used. Muscle and subcutaneous fat are excellent "passive" insulators. Neandertals were quite muscular, but it is unlikely that they could maintain enough superficial body fat to offer much cold protection. A major, high-energy metabolic adaptation facilitated by modest amounts of highly thermogenic brown adipose tissue (BAT) is proposed. In addition, Neandertals would have been protected by general mammalian cold defenses based on systemic vasoconstriction and intensified by acclimatization, aerobic fitness, and localized cold-induced vasodilation. However, these defenses are energetically expensive. Based on contemporary data from circumpolar peoples, it is estimated that Neandertals required 3,360 to 4,480 kcal per day to support strenuous winter foraging and cold resistance costs. Several specific genetic cold adaptations are also proposed,heat shock protein (actually, stress shock protein), an ACP*1 locus somatic growth factor, and a specialized calcium metabolism not as yet understood. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 14:566,583, 2002. © 2002 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source]

Differences in efficient metabolite management and nutrient metabolic regulation between wild and cultivated barley grown at high salinity

PLANT BIOLOGY, Issue 4 2010
Sabah Yousfi
Abstract Physiological and biochemical responses of Hordeum maritimum and H. vulgare to salt stress were studied over a 60-h period. Growth at increasing salinity levels (0, 100, 200 and 300 mM NaCl) was assessed in hydroponic culture. H. maritimum was shown to be a true halophyte via its typical behaviour at high salinity. Shoot growth of cultivated barley was gradually reduced with increasing salinity, whereas that of wild barley was enhanced at 100 and 200 mm NaCl then slightly reduced at 300 mM NaCl. The higher salt tolerance of H. maritimum as compared to H. vulgare was due to its higher capacity to maintain cell turgor under severe salinity. Furthermore, H. maritimum exhibited fine regulation of Na+ transport from roots to shoots and, unlike H. vulgare, it accumulated less Na+ in shoots than in roots. In addition, H. maritimum can accumulate more Na+ than K+ in both roots and shoots without the appearance of toxicity symptoms, indicating that Na+ was well compartmentalized within cells and substituted K+ in osmotic adjustment. The higher degree of salt tolerance of H. maritimum is further demonstrated by its economic strategy: at moderate salt treatment (100 mm NaCl), it used inorganic solutes (such as Na+) for osmotic adjustment and kept organic solutes and a large part of the K+ for metabolic activities. Indeed, K+ use efficiency in H. maritimum was about twofold that in H. vulgare; the former started to use organic solutes as osmotica only at high salinity (200 and 300 mm NaCl). These results suggest that the differences in salt tolerance between H. maritimum and H. vulgare are partly due to (i) differences in control of Na+ transport from roots to shoots, and (ii) H. maritimum uses Na+ as an osmoticum instead of K+ and organic solutes. These factors are differently reflected in growth. [source]