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Other Developing Countries (other + developing_country)
Selected AbstractsHARMONIZING REGULATIONS FOR BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE US AND VENEZUELAN SYSTEMSDEVELOPING WORLD BIOETHICS, Issue 3 2008DANNIE DI TILLIO-GONZALEZ ABSTRACT This article aims to compare the national legal systems that regulate biomedical research in an industrialized country (United States) and a developing country (Venezuela). A new international order is emerging in which Europe, Japan and the United States (US) are revising common guidelines and harmonizing standards. In this article, we analyze , as an example , the US system. This system is controlled by a federal agency structured to regulate research funded by the federal government uniformly, either in the US or abroad. In contrast, in Venezuela, a developing country, the creation of a centralized system is a slow process. Different types of ethical committees review research projects using non-uniform criteria. Consequently, various parallel organizations that conduct biomedical research, such as universities, research institutes and private hospitals have diverse regulations operating at a local level. Thus, the most relevant difference between the Venezuelan and the US systems is the degree of standardization. In the US, the review process is performed by institutional review boards (IRBs), which have a similar organization and maintain relationships with a centralized agency, following standard regulations. Although new proposals for establishing national regulations are currently being considered in Venezuela, the success of these initiatives will depend on promoting governmental efforts to create a more structured centralized system supported by a national regulatory framework. This system will need governmental financial support at all levels. This article proposes an integrated system to regulate research with human participants in Venezuela and other developing countries. [source] Policy Reform and Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: Absolute Progress but Relative DeclineDEVELOPMENT POLICY REVIEW, Issue 1 2004Elizabeth Asiedu Despite improvements in the policy environment, sub-Saharan Africa's share of foreign direct investment (FDI) in developing countries continues to decline. This article provides an explanation for the deterioration in SSA's FDI global position. It argues that, although SSA has reformed its institutions, improved its infrastructure and liberalised its FDI regulatory framework, the degree of reform has been mediocre compared with the reform implemented in other developing countries. As a consequence, relative to other regions, SSA has become less attractive for FDI. An important implication of these results is that in a competitive global economy, it is not enough just to improve one's policy environment: improvements need to be made both in absolute and relative terms. [source] Alcohol policy in South Africa: a review of policy development processes between 1994 and 2009ADDICTION, Issue 8 2010Charles D. H. Parry ABSTRACT Background Implementation of effective policies to reduce harmful alcohol consumption requires both a good understanding of the policy development process and which strategies are likely to work. Aims To contribute to this understanding by reviewing four specific policy development initiatives that have taken place in South Africa between 1994 and 2009: restrictions on alcohol advertising and counter-advertising, regulation of retail sales of alcohol, alcohol taxation and controls on alcohol packaging. Methods Material was drawn from a record of meetings and conferences held between 1994 and 2009 and a database of reports, newspaper clippings and policy documentation. Findings When the policy process resulted in a concrete outcome there was always a clear recognition of the problem and policy alternatives, but success was more likely if there was an alignment of ,political' forces and/or when there was a determined bureaucracy. The impact of the other factors such as the media, community mobilization, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), the liquor industry and research are also discussed. Future avenues for policy research are identified, including the need for more systematic studies that give greater consideration to economic factors. Conclusions Alcohol policy development in South Africa takes place in a piecemeal fashion and is the product of various competing influences. Having a comprehensive national alcohol strategy cutting across different sectors may be a better way for other developing countries to proceed. [source] A review of social and behavioral efforts at oral cancer preventions in IndiaHEAD & NECK: JOURNAL FOR THE SCIENCES & SPECIALTIES OF THE HEAD AND NECK, Issue 11 2004Erich M. Sturgis MD Abstract Background. Oral cancer is a major public health problem in South-Central Asia, home to one fifth of the world's population. In most regions of India, it is the most common cancer in men and the third most common cancer in women. Prevention is an effective tool to reduce disease burden on society and may offer particular advantages in developing countries. Methods. The primary and secondary oral cancer prevention efforts in India were reviewed and presented. In addition, the scope of the oral cancer problem and the tobacco industry in India are discussed, and the chief etiologies in the region are summarized. Results and Conclusions. The effectiveness of these prevention efforts provides an excellent social/behavioral model for similar programs in other developing countries. Furthermore, similar programs may also be applicable to certain populations in schools or industries in the developed world. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Head Neck26: 937,944, 2004 [source] Caveolin-1 is a novel immunohistochemical marker to differentiate epithelioid mesothelioma from lung adenocarcinomaHISTOPATHOLOGY, Issue 1 2009Vishwa Jeet Amatya Aims:, The incidence of mesothelioma is increasing in Europe, Japan and other developing countries. There is difficulty in the accurate diagnosis of mesothelioma and its differentiation from lung adenocarcinoma. Mesothelioma shows a complex immunohistochemical profile. Therefore, the use of a immunohistochemical panel that includes both positive and negative mesothelial markers has become a general rule for its accurate diagnosis. However, they are still not sufficient. The aim was to assess the diagnostic utility of caveolin-1 (Cav-1), which is expressed in endothelial cells, alveolar type I pneumocytes and mesothelial cells, as a novel positive marker of mesothelioma. Methods and results:, An immunohistochemical study of 80 cases of epithelioid mesothelioma and 80 cases of lung adenocarcinoma was performed for the analysis of the expression of Cav-1 and other markers. Cav-1 expression with a membranous and/or cytoplasmic pattern was found in all of the epithelioid mesothelioma. Of these, 42 cases (52.5%) showed Cav-1 expression in >50% of tumour cells, 34 cases (42.5%) in 6,50% of tumour cells, and four cases (5.0%) in <5% of tumour cells. In contrast, only six cases (7.5%) of lung adenocarcinoma showed focal Cav-1 expression in the cytoplasm of the tumour cells. The sensitivity and specificity of Cav-1 expression for the differentiation of epithelioid mesothelioma from lung adenocarcinoma were 100 and 92.5%, respectively. This is comparable or even superior to that of currently available positive markers such as calretinin or D2-40. Conclusions:, Cav-1 is a novel immunohistochemical marker for the differentiation of epithelioid mesothelioma from lung adenocarcinoma. [source] An overview of the Turkish dairy sectorINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DAIRY TECHNOLOGY, Issue 1 2008SERTAÇ GÖNENÇ The livestock sector and dairy subsector have great importance for Turkey, in terms of both nutrition and economy. The share of the livestock sector in the total agricultural production value has varied between 25% and 30% in the last three decades. Raw milk production is characterized by small-scale farms, with an average of three heads of dairy cattle per farm. Turkey's dairy industry was established and developed by the State with the opening of the Turkish Dairy Industry Institution (TSEK) in 1963 as a state-owned enterprise (SOE). TSEK facilitated modernization of the sector, created a dairy market and played a role in stabilizing the consumer and producer prices. In 1995, a liberalization movement in the agricultural sector started in Turkey and the TSEK enterprises were privatized. After privatization, producer prices decreased between 11.51% and 18.45% and consumer prices of dairy products increased in general. Today, the dairy processing sector has a dual structure that on one hand comprises many small- and medium-sized enterprises, while on the other features seven large holding companies that hold the largest market share (CR4 71). This study aims to show that the restructuring of the agricultural SOEs in the first place resulted in undesirable impacts, and thus that the planning and implementation of the privatization of the state enterprises in the dairy sector should be taken as a strategy in the medium term, using the experiences of other developing countries. [source] Dental caries and associated factors in 12-year-old schoolchildren in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, IndiaINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PAEDIATRIC DENTISTRY, Issue 6 2005J. DAVID Summary Objectives. The aims of the present study were to describe the dental health status of 12-year-old schoolchildren in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India, and to identify sociodemographic factors, oral health behaviours, attitudes and knowledge related to dental caries experience. Methods. The study took the form of a cross-sectional survey of 838 children in upper primary schools. A two-stage cluster sampling technique was used. Dental caries was measured using World Health Organization criteria. Sociodemographic factors, oral health behaviours, attitudes and knowledge were assessed by a self-administered questionnaire. Results. The prevalence of dental caries in the permanent dentition was 27%. The mean number of decayed, missing and filled teeth was 0·5 (SD = 0·9). The decayed component (D) constituted 91% of the total number of decayed, missing and filled teeth (DMFT). Multiple logistic regression analysis showed that children had a higher risk of having dental caries if they lived in urban area [OR = 1·5, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1·1,2·1], had visited a dentist (OR = 1·6, 95% CI = 1·2,2·2), did not use a toothbrush (OR = 1·9, 95% CI = 1·2,2·9), consumed sweets (OR = 1·4, 95% CI = 1·0,1·9) or performed poorly in school (OR = 1·7, 95% CI = 1·0,2·3). Conclusions. The prevalence of caries in this sample of 12-year-old schoolchildren was low compared to that in other developing countries. The present study indicated that urban living conditions were associated with more dental caries. Since urbanization is rapid in India, oral health promotion at the present time would be valuable to prevent increased caries prevalence. [source] Minimum income schemes for the unemployed: a case study from Dalian, China*INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL SCIENCE JOURNAL, Issue 179 2004Ge Daoshun This article summarizes the background, implementation, and impact of a study of social welfare in Dalian, China, designed to enhance the efficiency and fairness of the minimum living protection scheme for unemployed people. While the scope of the case study is fairly narrow, its significance is much broader. In social and economic terms, China is currently undergoing a transitional period in the context of which social welfare reform is an important task. The setting up of a community public service agency in Dalian, as the result of both policy research and government action, is a successful example of Chinese social welfare reform. To that extent, the study is significant for social welfare reform at the national level, as well as providing references for the management of social transition in other developing countries. [source] Universal age pensions in developing countries: The example of MauritiusINTERNATIONAL SOCIAL SECURITY REVIEW, Issue 4 2006Larry Willmore Mauritius, a small developing country located in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar, has provided older residents with non-contributory age pensions since 1950. The scheme became universal in 1958. Mild income tests were reintroduced in 1965 and again in 2004. Targeting proved to be unpopular, and universality each time was restored. Government added a mandatory, contributory tier in 1978 that does not replace the flat, non-contributory pension. Instead, it promises participants (approximately half the labour force) an income-related benefit to top up the universal pension. The author examines Mauritius's long experience, drawing lessons from it for other developing countries. [source] Old age protection in India: Problems and prognosisINTERNATIONAL SOCIAL SECURITY REVIEW, Issue 2 2002Ranadev Goswami This paper reviews the current state of the Indian pension system. The Indian experience could potentially influence policy decisions in other developing countries, especially those with similar reliance on the national provident fund system. Institutional features of various retirement benefit schemes are highlighted and their deficiencies are discussed. It is argued that low coverage level, underperformance of provident fund schemes due to investment restrictions, and financial difficulties in administering unfunded public pension programmes have rendered the current system ineffective and unsustainable. The failed experiments with ad hoc reform initiatives in the recent past further emphasize the need for a structural and lasting change. The paper concludes with some policy directions for reforming the Indian pension system. [source] An analysis of transaction costs of Islamic banks in rural IranAGRIBUSINESS : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, Issue 3 2009S. Safdar Hosseini This study measures transaction costs of obtaining credit from Islamic banks. Data were collected from rural households in Iran. The factors affecting transaction costs and the probability of accessing Islamic financial markets are investigated. Similar to conventional financial institutions found in other developing countries, Iranian banks impose high transaction costs that limit poor rural household access to credit. The results reveal that the transaction costs of gaining credit are on average equivalent to an additional 13.8% annual interest cost. The contractual form, the size of credit, the borrower distance from a financial center, and the experience and education level of the borrower are important determinants of the transactions costs. [EconLit Citations: D230, R510, G210]. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [source] The institutional environment in the strategic decision of the emerging companies: the case of the Algerian sugar industryJOURNAL OF MULTI CRITERIA DECISION ANALYSIS, Issue 5-6 2009Mohamed Akli Achabou Abstract During these last years, Algeria, like some other developing countries, is undergoing important institutional changes. The structural adjustment plan (1990s) and the association agreement signed with the European Union (2005) are some of the political tools that guide these profound changes that have considerable impacts on the strategic behaviour of local enterprises. Beyond these mutations at national level, important policy changes are observed at the international level, like the recent reform of the European sugar policy that constitutes a considerable shifter on the behaviour of enterprises operating in the Algerian sugar refining industry. The present research aims to measure the weight of the institutional criteria on the strategic decision of sugar refining companies in Algeria, by the combination of the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats analysis and the analytical hierarchy process. The ultimate purpose is to contribute to the analysis of interactions that exist between institutional changes induced by the globalization process and the strategic choices of local enterprises in an emergent economy. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Aviation fuel demand modelling in OECD and developing countries: impacts of fuel efficiencyOPEC ENERGY REVIEW, Issue 1 2009Mohammad Mazraati On the quest for reducing the fuel consumption per passenger per flight for economical and environmental reasons, commercial aircraft manufacturers are implementing new strategies for optimising aircraft performance by using new lighter and stronger materials and enhancing engines' efficiencies in terms of fuel consumption and maintenance requirements. With the rising and falling of economies, whether in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries or other developing countries, the aviation industry has been affected by multiple factors such as passenger traffic, freight traffic, airport capacities and oil prices. Aircraft manufacturers have worked on improving the engine efficiency of their newly built airplanes (e.g. Airbus's A-380 and Boeing's B-787), and many airports in the world have increased the number of their runways to face the increasing demand for air traffic in the world. Aviation efficiency can also be achieved through better load management, which in return enables airliners to cope with higher oil prices or rising costs. Aviation fuel demand is modelled in OECD North America, Europe and Pacific regions and some selected developing countries. Price elasticities of fuel demand in all regions are low, while income elasticities are high. The elasticity of aviation fuel demand on passenger kilometre performed (PKP) is considerably low. One per cent increase in PKP leads to less than half a per cent increase in aviation fuel demand, confirming an ongoing fuel efficiency in aviation industry. [source] Linear growth in early life is associated with suicidal ideation in 18-year-old FilipinosPAEDIATRIC & PERINATAL EPIDEMIOLOGY, Issue 5 2009Yin Bun Cheung Summary Studies in Western societies have shown some evidence that growth in early life may be associated with suicide and suicidal ideation in later life. The pattern of growth retardation in developing countries is different from that in Western societies. This study examines the association between size at birth, postnatal growth from birth to age 24 months and suicidal ideation in 18-year-old Filipinos. The 1941 participants born in 1983 and 1984 in the Philippines were assessed for growth status bimonthly from birth to 24 months of age and were administered an interview in 2002, which included items on suicidal ideation. The pattern of growth stunting in this cohort was similar to that in many other developing countries: a minor level of shortness in crown-heel length at birth followed by sharp decline in length-for-age in the first 24 months of life. The prevalence of suicidal ideation at age 18 was 2.9%; 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.2, 3.8%. Length Z-score at 24 months (odds ratios [OR] = 0.67; 95% CI [0.52, 0.86]; P = 0.002) and gain in length Z-score from birth to age 24 months (OR = 0.74; 95% CI [0.56, 0.98]; P = 0.037) were inversely associated with the odds of suicidal ideation. Adjustment for covariates made little difference. Length at birth Z-score was associated with suicidal ideation only after adjustment for postnatal length gain (OR = 0.61; 95% CI [0.46, 0.80]; P < 0.001). The associations between linear growth in early life and suicidal ideation appeared to be partly mediated by educational attainment. In conclusion, postnatal growth stunting is an important predictor of suicidal ideation in later life. It also affects the association between birth length and suicidal ideation. [source] Prevalence of Epstein,Barr virus in Japan: Trends and future predictionPATHOLOGY INTERNATIONAL, Issue 3 2006Kengo Takeuchi Epstein,Barr virus (EBV) is the causative agent of infectious mononucleosis and some malignancies including EBV-associated-lymphomas. A large portion of adults all over the world are infected with EBV. In children, however, there are geographic variations. Most of the children in Asia and in other developing countries are infected in their early life, before 1 year of age (>90% of 5,9-year-old children are infected), while the age of primary infection is delayed in Western countries (approx. 50% of 5,9-year-old children are infected). The purpose of the present paper was to investigate the recent time trend of the EBV seropositivity among 5,7-year-old children living in Tokyo and its neighboring prefectures. Indirect immunofluorescein study for IgG antibody to viral capsid antigen was performed on 442 archival sera. Before the early 1990s, >80% of 5,7-year-old children were found to be seropositive, while the positivity rate decreased to 59% (P < 0.001) for the years 1995,1999. These results also showed that the delay in the age of primary infection is continuing and that the rate is estimated to be <50% in 2006. This result suggests that the delay will affect the incidence of EBV-associated disorders in Japan. [source] Musculoskeletal pain in women working in small-scale agriculture in South AfricaAMERICAN JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL MEDICINE, Issue 3 2009S. Naidoo MBChB Abstract Background Musculoskeletal pain is associated with demographic, occupational and physical factors. Methods Our study investigated the prevalence and factors associated with musculoskeletal pain in 911 women working in small-scale agriculture in rural northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa in 2006 using a questionnaire survey. Results In total, 67% (n,=,574) of women reported any chronic musculoskeletal pain. The 12-month prevalence of pain ranged from 63.9% to 73.3% and the prevalence of specific chronic pain lasting more than 3 months ranged from 42.8% to 48.3%. Older age, carrying heavy loads, working with hands above shoulder height, and frequently squatting and kneeling were associated with chronic musculoskeletal pain. Conclusion The prevalence of pain reported in our study, was similar to other developing countries, but considerably higher than in developed countries. Ergonomic interventions including improved and adapted work techniques and tools should be considered to reduce the prevalence of pain in our study population. Am. J. Ind. Med. 52:202,209, 2009. © 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] Lead exposure in mexican radiator repair workersAMERICAN JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL MEDICINE, Issue 3 2002Ronald Dykeman Abstract Background Lead exposure was investigated among 73 Mexican radiator repair workers (RRWs), 12 members of their family (4 children and 8 wives), and 36 working controls. RRWs were employed at 4 radiator repair shops in Mexico City and 27 shops in Cuernavaca and surrounding areas. Methods Exposure was assessed directly through the use of personal air sampling and hand wipe samples. In addition, industrial hygiene inspections were performed and detailed questionnaires were administered. Blood lead levels were measured by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). Results The mean (SD) values for blood lead of the RRWs, 35.5 (13.5) ,g/dl, was significantly greater than the same values for the working controls, 13.6 (8.7) ,g/dl; P,<,001. After excluding a single outlier (247 ,g/m3), air lead levels ranged from 0 to 99 ,g/m3 with a mean (SD) value of 19 (23) ,g/m3 (median,=,7.9 ,g/m3). In a final multivariate regression model of elevated blood lead levels, the strongest predictors were smoking (vs. non-smoking), the number of radiators repaired per day on average, and the use (vs. non-use) of a uniform while at work, which were associated with blood lead elevations of 11.4 ,g/dl, 1.95 ,g/dl/radiator/day, and 16.4 ,g/dl, respectively (all P,<,.05). Uniform use was probably a risk factor because they were not laundered regularly and consequently served as reservoir of contamination on which RRWs frequently wiped their hands. Conclusions Lead exposure is a significant problem of radiator repair work, a small industry that is abundant in Mexico and other developing countries. Am. J. Ind. Med. 41:179,187, 2002. © 2002 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] Diabetes care in Brazil: now and in the futurePRACTICAL DIABETES INTERNATIONAL (INCORPORATING CARDIABETES), Issue 2 2004HC Pedrosa MD Professor of Medicine Abstract Brazil, like many other developing countries, faces the dual problem of an increasing burden of chronic disease together with many communicable diseases. The organisation of diabetes care and the provision of drugs have improved considerably over the last 20 years, and the Brazilian Diabetes Society has had a major role in these improvements. However, many people remain unaware that they have diabetes and some diagnosed patients receive no treatment. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Implementation challenges in protecting the global environmental commons: The case of climate change policies in BrazilPUBLIC ADMINISTRATION & DEVELOPMENT, Issue 5 2008Rogerio F. Pinto Abstract The effective control of climate change rests, to a great extent, on governance mechanisms to protect the global commons as a type of common pool resource on a global scale. This calls for action beyond the boundaries of the state and of local interests. Collective solutions at the global level are needed as a means of sharing in the promises that globalisation holds. Moreover, global policies need to rest on the harmonisation of local and national interests in order to be effectively implemented. The attendant implementation challenges are addressed in this article with reference to Brazil's experience, against the backdrop of considerations also applicable to other developing countries. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Designing a Property Tax Reform Strategy for Sub-Saharan Africa: An Analytical Framework Applied to KenyaPUBLIC BUDGETING AND FINANCE, Issue 4 2000Roy Kelly Countries throughout Sub-Saharan Africa are exploring options to improve local property taxation. Using the case of Kenya, this article provides an analytical framework for designing an effective property tax reform strategy. The first section presents a general conceptual model of property tax revenues, identifying four critical ratios that ultimately determine the effectiveness of any property tax system,namely, the coverage ratio, the valuation ratio, the tax ratio, and the collection ratio. The second section applies this conceptual framework to the property tax system in Kenya, focusing on the status of these four ratios and outlining possibilities for improving each ratio. The article concludes by summarizing five basic lessons from the Kenyan analysis that can assist in the development of appropriate property tax reforms in other developing countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. [source] FIRM EFFICIENCY AND THE DESTINATION OF EXPORTS: EVIDENCE FROM KENYAN PLANT-LEVEL DATATHE DEVELOPING ECONOMIES, Issue 3 2009Mats GRANÉR D24; F14; L60; O24; O33 Investigating the link between firm efficiency and exports in Kenyan manufacturing, the results show that exporters are more efficient than non-exporters, and that relatively efficient firms self-select into exporting. An important new finding is that only for export markets outside Africa must firms be efficient prior to entry. The probability of exporting to other African countries increases if production is intense in physical and human capital. For export activities outside Africa, firm size is more important. Contrary to many other studies, it is also found that export participation yields learning effects. When testing the hypothesis that the main source of learning effects is trade with developed countries (south,north), as opposed to trade with other developing countries (south,south), yet another new finding is that learning effects only obtain in south,south trade. Therefore, one can conclude that controlling for the destination of exports importantly improves the understanding of the relationship between firm efficiency and exports. [source] Foreign debt and economic growthTHE ECONOMICS OF TRANSITION, Issue 3 2001Shuanglin Lin This paper empirically examines the relationship between government foreign debt and the growth rate of per capita GDP based on a total sample of 77 countries, as well as sub-samples of various regions. Cross-sectional estimates of the coefficient of foreign debt based on the total sample have a negative sign, but are not always statistically significant. Available data from African countries indicate that foreign debt and the growth rate of per capita GDP were negatively related at a high level of significance. For industrialized and Latin American sub-samples, this relationship is negative but statistically insignificant. The sub-sample Asian and other developing countries show a positive but insignificant relationship. JEL classification: F34, H6, O23. [source] Estimates for cervical abnormalities in VanuatuAUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF PUBLIC HEALTH, Issue 6 2007Nina Fotinatos Abstract Objective: To use the Pap smear to establish a recent prevalence of cervical abnormalities within a select population in Vanuatu, a developing country. Methods: Cervical smears (n=907) were collected from Ni-Vanuatu women from both urban and rural islands within Vanuatu between August 2001 and September 2005. Results: The prevalence of low-grade epithelial abnormalities for the total population was 2.9% and the prevalence of the high-grade epithelial abnormalities/cancer was 2.0%. There was a significant difference (p<0.05) in prevalence of high-grade epithelial abnormalities/cancer between the urban and rural populations sampled, with a higher prevalence in the urban population. Conclusions: The prevalence of pre-cancer and cancer in Vanuatu is high compared with Victorian (Australian) statistics yet comparable with other developing countries with no cervical screening programs available. Implications: This study will hopefully assist in future planning of women's health programs and relevant preventive strategies to combat cervical cancer in Vanuatu. [source] | ||||||||||||||||