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Nineteenth Century (nineteenth + century)
Kinds of Nineteenth Century Selected AbstractsGENDER AND THE AMERICAN TEMPERANCE MOVEMENT OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURYADDICTION, Issue 11 2008JESSICA WARNER No abstract is available for this article. [source] CHARTING THE "TRANSITIONAL PERIOD": THE EMERGENCE OF MODERN TIME IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURYHISTORY AND THEORY, Issue 1 2006GÖRAN BLIX ABSTRACT This paper seeks to chart a concept of historical experience that French Romantic writers first developed to describe their own relationship to historical time: the notion of the "transitional period." At first, the term related strictly to the evolving periodic conception of history, one that required breaks, spaces, or zones of indeterminacy to bracket off periods imagined as organic wholes. These transitions, necessary devices in the new grammar of history, also began to attract interest on their own, conceived either as chaotic but creative times of transformation, or, more often, as slack periods of decadence that possessed no proper style but exhibited hybrid traits. Their real interest, however, lies in their reflexive application to the nineteenth century itself, by writers and historians such as Alfred de Musset, Chateaubriand, Michelet, and Renan, who in their effort to define their own period envisioned the "transitional period" as a passage between more coherent and stable historical formations. This prospective self-definition of the "age of history" from a future standpoint is very revealing; it shows not just the tension between its organic way of apprehending the past and its own self-perception, but it also opens a window on a new and paradoxical experience of time, one in which change is ceaseless and an end in itself. The paper also presents a critique of the way the term "modernity" has functioned, from Baudelaire's initial use to the present, to occlude the experience of transition that the Romantics highlighted. By imposing on the nineteenth-century sense of the transitory a heroic period designation, the term "modernity" denies precisely the reality it describes, and sublimates a widespread temporal malaise into its contrary. The paper concludes that the peculiarly "modern" mania for naming one's period is a function of transitional time, and that the concept coined by the Romantics still governs our contemporary experience. [source] CAMBRIDGE THEOLOGY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: ENQUIRY, CONTROVERSY AND TRUTH by David M. ThompsonNEW BLACKFRIARS, Issue 1033 2010AIDAN NICHOLS OP No abstract is available for this article. [source] COLONIALISM AND LONG-RUN GROWTH IN AUSTRALIA: AN EXAMINATION OF INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE IN VICTORIA'S WATER SECTOR DURING THE NINETEENTH CENTURYAUSTRALIAN ECONOMIC HISTORY REVIEW, Issue 3 2008Edwyna Harris colonialism; democracy; economic growth; institutional efficiency; water rights Institutional change in water rights in the nineteenth century Australian colony of Victoria raised institutional efficiency, which contributed to long-run economic growth. High-quality human capital and the extension of voting rights (franchise) were crucial for efficient institutional change in the water sector. Quality human capital (literacy) appeared to increase the rural population's awareness of the economic impact of the existing structure of water rights that may have constrained growth in the agricultural sector and reduced investment incentives. Extension of the franchise allowed the rural population to exert political pressure for enactment of change in water rights, which resulted in efficiency-enhancing policies and efficient institutions. The findings show these two factors were more important than Victoria's British colonial heritage in determining whether growth-enhancing institutional change took place. [source] Authors of their Lives: The Personal Correspondence of British Immigrants to North America in the Nineteenth Century By David A. GerberHISTORY, Issue 305 2007MARJORY HARPER No abstract is available for this article. [source] Managing Literacy, Mothering America: Women's Narratives on Reading and Writing in the Nineteenth Century by Sarah RobbinsHISTORY OF EDUCATION QUARTERLY, Issue 4 2006BARBARA RUTH PELTZMAN [source] Supreme Court Advocacy in the Early Nineteenth CenturyJOURNAL OF SUPREME COURT HISTORY, Issue 1 2005DAVID C. FREDERICK The early nineteenth century was transformative of the Supreme Court's practices. Yet understanding those fundamental changes requires some appreciation of practice before the Court in the late eighteenth century, and the developments in the early nineteenth century produced changes in the Court's practices that are still felt today. In this first half-century or so of the Court's existence, more dramatic developments and changes occurred in oral argument practice than in any other period of the Court's history.1 [source] The Supreme Court in the Nineteenth CenturyJOURNAL OF SUPREME COURT HISTORY, Issue 1 2002William H. Rehnquist At the beginning of the nineteenth century, we find a Court which has not yet found its role, and whose principal impact is deciding which litigant wins in a particular lawsuit. Chief Justice John Marshall, appointed in 1801, changes that; he and his successor, Roger B. Taney, are the dominant figures in the Courts over which they preside. From 1801 until 1864-sixty-three years-the nation had only two Chief Justices; during the same time, it had fifteen presidents. In the latter part of the nineteenth century, the Chief Justices are less dominant and influential, sharing their authority with several notable Associate Justices. By the end of the century, the Court is beginning to wrestle with the many problems facing the nation after a little more than a century of existence. [source] Five Feuds: An Analysis of Homicides in Eastern Kentucky in the Late Nineteenth CenturyAMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, Issue 2 2000Keith F. Otterbein Kentucky feuds are an example of market-based feuding, one of two major types of feuding. Compensation is not paid for a homicide in regions where a local market system is linked to the world system. Feuding kinship groups in Kentucky struggle to eliminate each other, whereas in regions where compensation is paid functional/equilibrium theories are used to explain the balance that seems to occur between kinship groups. The trouble case method is used to analyze five Kentucky feuds. Episodes or homicidal encounters are placed within feud sequences. Encounters include ambushes, gunfights, house attacks, encounter battles, and arranged battles. Although each feud differs greatly from the others, the structure of the Kentucky feud is delineated, [feuding, homicide, Kentucky feuds, Appalachia, war] [source] "The Humaner Instinct of Women": Hannah Bailey and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union's Critique of Militarism and Manliness in the Late Nineteenth CenturyPEACE & CHANGE, Issue 2 2008Tara M. McCarthy From its founding in 1887, the National Peace and Arbitration Department of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), led by Hannah Johnston Bailey (1839,1923), provided an important source of women's peace activism. Bailey used the strength and organization of the WCTU to promote the peace movement, reaching beyond male-dominated peace societies to appeal directly to women. Her work, particularly in the area of peace education, laid the foundation for other peace activists in the early twentieth century. Beginning in the late nineteenth century, when many Americans began to express concern over the decline of masculinity, the women of the WCTU challenged the association of patriotism with manliness and militarism. Instead, they advocated a new definition, seeking to replace the martial ideal with one emphasizing public service. [source] Havana During the Nineteenth Century: A Perspective from Its Spanish ImmigrantsTHE JOURNAL OF THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY, Issue 2 2009Translated by Franklin W. Knight [source] American Livestock Improvers and Urban Markets during the Nineteenth CenturyTHE JOURNAL OF THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY, Issue 4 2007Robyn S. Metcalfe [source] Trouble Wherever They Went: American Missionaries in Anatolia and Ottoman Syria in the Nineteenth CenturyTHE MUSLIM WORLD, Issue 3-4 2002Jeremy Salt First page of article [source] The Image of the Prophet as Found in Missionary Writings of the Late Nineteenth CenturyTHE MUSLIM WORLD, Issue 1-2 2000Alan M. Guenther First page of article [source] ART HISTORY: CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES ON METHODART HISTORY, Issue 4 2009DANA ARNOLD Dana Arnold is Professor of Architectural History at the University of Southampton, UK. She was editor of Art History from 1997 to 2002 and edits the book series New Interventions in Art History; Companions to Art History; and Anthologies in Art History, all published by Wiley-Blackwell. Her recent monographs include: Rural Urbanism: London Landscapes in the Early Nineteenth Century (2006); Reading Architectural History (2002); Re-presenting the Metropolis: Architecture, Urban Experience and Social Life in London 1800,1840 (2000). Her edited and co-edited volumes include: Biographies and Space (2007); Rethinking Architectural Historiography (2006); Architecture as Experience (2004); Cultural Identities and the Aesthetics of Britishness (2004); Tracing Architecture: The Aesthetics of Antiquarianism (2003); Art and Thought (2003). She is the author of the bestselling Art History: A Very Short Introduction (2004) which has been translated into many languages, including Chinese, Russian, Arabic, Japanese and Spanish and has been reprinted several times. Her monograph on the Spaces of the Hospital is forthcoming from Routledge. Professor Arnold has held research fellowships at Yale University, the University of Cambridge and the Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles and has held numerous visiting Professorships. She was a member of the Research Panel for the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) and now sits on the Advisory Board of the joint Engineering and Physical Sciences/AHRC initiative Science and Heritage. [source] ,Weapons of the Weak?' Colombia and Foreign Powers in the Nineteenth CenturyBULLETIN OF LATIN AMERICAN RESEARCH, Issue 2008MALCOLM DEAS First page of article [source] A Survey of Portuguese Mathematics in the Nineteenth CenturyCENTAURUS, Issue 4 2000Luis M. Ribeiro Saraiva Résumé La reforme de l'Université Portugaise en 1772, qui avait pour but la mettre au niveau des meilleures Universités d'Europe, n'a pas eu le temps de se développer, opposée par des forces rétrogrades. En conséquence de ce fait et du climat d'agitation politique et sociale qui a caractérisé la Portugal dans la première moitié du dixneuvième siècle, la production mathématique dans cette époque fut minimale. Les académies militaires étaient alors les principaux centres de transmission des connaissances mathématiques, et les articles de mathématique en ce temps étaient publiés dans sa majorité par l'Académie de Sciences de Lisbonne. Dans la deuxième moitié du dixneuvième siècle le Portugal entra dans une période de stabilité. La reforme de l'enseignement de 1836, et les nouveaux status de l'Académie de 1851 ont proporcionné un développement de l'activité mathématique, qui fut acompagnée de la restructuration des académies militaires ou de leur transformation en Ecoles Polytechniques; l'Ecole Polytechnique de Lisbonne fut spécialement importante. A partir de 1877, avec la publication du premier journal de mathématique qui ne dépendait pas de l'Académie, et qui avait pour but spécifique briser l'isolement des mathématiques portugaises, la recherche en ce champs s'est encore plus développée. Dans la dernière partie de cet article nous donnons quelques éléments sur la vie et l'oeuvre de deux importants mathématiciens portugais du dixneuvième siècle: Daniel Augusto da Silva (1814,1878) et Francisco Gomes Teixeira (1851,1933). Abstract The Portuguese University was briefly reformed in 1772, aiming to bring it to the level of its European counterparts; but this was soon cut short by the return to power of reactionary forces. As a consequence of this, and the political and social unrest that characterized the first half of the nineteenth century in Portugal, there was very little production of mathematics in this period. The military academies were the main centres of transmission of mathematical knowledge, and mathematical works were mostly published by the Lisbon Academy of Sciences. In the second half of the nineteenth century the country entered a period of stability. The education reform of 1836 and the Academy's new statutes of 1851 set in train a blossoming of mathematical activity, reflected in the restructuring of the military academies, or their transformation into Polytechnic Schools, of which the Polytechnic School of Lisbon is of particular importance. Mathematics research was further promoted from 1877 onwards by the publication of the first mathematics journal independent of the Academy, which aimed specifically at ending the isolation of Portuguese mathematics. In the final pages of this survey some data is given on the life and work of the two outstanding Portuguese mathematicians of the nineteenth century: Daniel Augusto da Silva (1814,1878) and Francisco Gomes Teixeira (1851,1933). [source] African Islam: Marriage, Mobility and Education of Women in Dan Fodio's nineteenth Century ReformsRELIGION COMPASS (ELECTRONIC), Issue 2 2009Mohammed Zakyi Ibrahim In 1804 ce, Dan Fodio toppled the chiefs of northern Nigeria for their ,un-Islamic' behaviors, and established an Islamic state on the Hausa/Fulani land. This phase in the history of Islam in Africa has been widely described and accepted as ,militant' and the scholars involved ,intolerant'. Dan Fodio's own reputation as a ,militant' scholar has been popularly suggested, and his conservative stance on many issues was well-documented. It is therefore intriguing that Dan Fodio had some social temperaments that challenged this conservative outlook. Specifically, this study is a sociological analysis of Dan Fodio's opinions on marriage, movement or mobility of women, and their education. This study is significant for analyzing these social issues and their implications, as well as suggesting that, in addition to the highly acclaimed militant stance, Dan Fodio was also a pragmatic and realistic scholar who was ready to make religious concessions in favor of some social imperatives. [source] Sex, Race, and Biopower: A Foucauldian GenealogyHYPATIA, Issue 3 2004LADELLE MCWHORTER For many years feminists have asserted an "intersection" between sex and race. This paper, drawing heavily on the work of Michel Foucault, offers a genealogical account of the two concepts showing how they developed together and in relation to similar political forces in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Thus it attempts to give a concrete meaning to the claim that sex and race are intersecting phenomena. [source] On-site analysis of Chinese Cloisonné enamels from fifteenth to nineteenth centuriesJOURNAL OF RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY, Issue 7 2010Burcu K Abstract A selection of 22 rare Chinese cloisonné enamels, from fifteenth century to nineteenth century A.D., has been studied on-site in the storage rooms of the musée des Arts décoratifs in Paris. The Raman signatures of the transparent and/or opacified glass matrix are discussed and compared with those that were previously recorded on glazed pottery, enameled and stained glasses. Enamels mostly belong to lead-based potash-lime glasses. Three different compositions, lead-potash-lime (fifteenth, sixteenth, eighteenth and nineteenth century), soda-rich (sixteenth,seventeenth century) and soda-lime (seventeenth century) are identified according to the wavenumber maxima of the SiO stretching and bending multiplets. Most of the pigment signatures are similar to those recorded on ceramic glazes and glass enamels, which proves the link between the technologies but a specific opacifier is observed: fluorite (CaF2). Naples Yellow pigment variations give characteristic signatures. Additionally, a comparison is made with Limoges enamels (sixteenth,nineteenth century A.D.). Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Romantic c/China: The Literature of ChinoiserieLITERATURE COMPASS (ELECTRONIC), Issue 3 2009Joanne Tong As the popularity of Chinese-style textiles, lacquers, and especially porcelain increased in Britain in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, chinoiserie objects inevitably found their way into literature. Porcelain, or ,china' begins to be troped as the reified sign of its geographical and cultural referent, ,China'. In Romantic writings about porcelain, writers render porcelain as a legible object with a story to be told, or even make the object itself speak, so that c/China teapots and dishes seemed less and less like mass-produced things and more and more like auratic works of art that had the power of mediating relations between British consumers and Chinese producers. In the chinoiserie poems of Joanna Baillie and Thomas Hood, we can witness the literary development of a unique version of commodity fetishism that invests great cultural and historical significance in the imagined lives of objects. [source] PROMETHEUS AND KANT: NEUTRALIZING THEOLOGICAL DISCOURSE AND DOXOLOGYMODERN THEOLOGY, Issue 3 2009ANTHONY C. SCIGLITANO This essay argues that Kant's writings on religion recapitulate or anticipate many of the theoretical moves we find in Promethean discourses of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The first portion of the article lays out fundamental elements of Promethean discourse from a theological point of view, and distinguishes between "aggressive" and "urbane" Prometheanism. I contend that both types attack divine transcendence and Christian doxology, focus almost entirely on soteriology to the detriment of creation, and advocate a movement from theo-centric discourse to anthropocentric discourse. Yet urbane Prometheanism differs from its aggressive cousin by moving from hatred of God to a non-dialogical mode of indifference to God as an impotent and inconsequential deity. I argue that an urbane Prometheanism is what properly characterizes Kant's philosophy of religion,from his epistemic work in the first Critique, through his way of parsing theological and philosophical discursive responsibilities, to his actual hermeneutics of Christian doctrine. [source] The evolution of screeningPHARMACOEPIDEMIOLOGY AND DRUG SAFETY, Issue 1 2001J. A. Muir Gray CBE Botany is usually considered to be the gentlest of sciences with botanists being regarded as people who study relatively safe specimens, compared with, for example, anthropologists or microbiologists. However, botanists have their moments, particularly when collecting new species. The great botanists of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries risked their lives in collecting and bringing back species, which we now take for granted, and Robert Brown was one of these adventurers, a young Scot who accompanied Sir Joseph Banks to New Holland. It was not, however, for his adventurous lifestyle that Brown is remembered but for his startling observation of the movements of pollen grains on a microscope slide. He noted that the pollen grains were in perpetual agitated motion, without purpose or direction but full of energy. This motion, called Brownian motion, arises from the movement of molecules, and Brownian motion is the term that has been applied to much of healthcare, including many screening programmes, which have in the past been marked more by the amount of energy and activity than by a clear sense of direction or positive achievement. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Reproduction, Compositional Demography, and Economic Growth: Family Planning in England Long Before the Fertility DeclinePOPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT REVIEW, Issue 1 2000Simon Szreter This article offers a radical reinterpretation of the chronology of control over reproduction in England's history. It argues that, as a result of post,World War II policy preoccupations, there has been too narrow a focus in the literature on the significance of reductions in marital fertility. In England's case this is conventionally dated to have occurred from 1876, long after the industrial revolution. With a wider angle focus on "reproduction," the historical evidence for England indicates that family planning began much earlier in the process of economic growth. Using a "compositional demography" approach, a novel social pattern of highly prudential, late marriage can be seen emerging among the bourgeoisie in the course of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. There is also evidence for a more widespread resort to such prudential marriage throughout the population after 1816. When placed in this context, the reduction in national fertility indexes visible from 1876 can be seen as only a further phase, not a revolution, in the population's management of its reproduction. [source] The Late Prehistoric,Early Historic Game Sink in the Northwestern United StatesCONSERVATION BIOLOGY, Issue 1 2002R. Lee Lyman The number of big game killed by the Corps of Discovery in 1805,1806 and recorded by Lewis and Clark suggests that ungulates were abundant in central and eastern Montana and rare in western Montana, central Idaho, and southeastern Washington during the early nineteenth century. Paleoecologists Paul Martin and Chris Szuter conclude that this difference was a function of human predation. They support their conclusion that ungulates would have been abundant in southeastern Washington had humans not hunted them by arguing that the nineteenth-century livestock industry was successful without supplemental feeding. The livestock industry was, however, not consistently successful until artificial feeding was initiated. Archaeological data from eastern Washington indicate that ungulates have been taken by human hunters more frequently than small-mammal prey throughout the last 10,000 years and that ungulates decreased relative to small mammals coincident with changes in climate. Bison ( Bison bison) and elk (Cervus canadensis) were present in eastern Washington throughout the Holocene, but bison were abundant there only during a cooler and moister period; elk have been abundant only in the twentieth century, subsequent to transplants and the extermination of predators. Geographic variation in the abundance of bison across Montana, Idaho, and eastern Washington has been influenced by human predation but has also been influenced by biogeographic history, habitat differences, and climatic change. Resumen: Los datos históricos proveen información valiosa sobre las estructuras de los ecosistemas, sus funciones y procesos. El número de animales de caza grandes que fueron sacrificados por las tropas de descubrimiento en 1805-1806 y registradas por Lewis y Clark sugieren que los ungulados eran abundantes en Montana central y oriental y raros en Montana occidental, Idaho central y el sudeste de Washington durante los inicios del siglo diecinueve. Los paleontólogos Paul Martin y Chris Szuter concluyen que esta diferencia fue causada por la depredación humana. Ellos apoyan su conclusión de que los ungulados podrían haber sido abundantes en el sudeste de Washington si los humanos no los hubieran cazado argumentando que la industria de la ganadería del siglo diecinueve exitosa sin alimento suplementario. Sin embargo, la industria de la ganadería no fue consistentemente exitosa hasta que se inició la alimentación artificial. Los datos arqueológicos de Washington oriental indican que los ungulados fueron eliminados por los cazadores humanos mas frecuentemente que las presas pequeñas de mamíferos a lo largo de los últimos 10,000 años y que la disminución de ungulados, relativa a la de mamíferos pequeños coincidió con cambios en el clima. El bisonte (Bison bison) y el alce (Cervus canadiensis) estuvieron presentes en Washington oriental a lo largo del Holoceno, pero los bisontes fueron abundantes solo durante un periodo mas frío y húmedo; los alces habían sido abundantes solo en el siglo veinte subsecuente a los transplantes y a la exterminación de los depredadores. La variación en la abundancia de alces a lo largo de Montana, Idaho y el oriente de Washington estuvo influenciada por la depredación humana, pero también por la historia biogeográfica, las diferencias en hábitat y el cambio climático. [source] Flooding and geomorphic impacts in a mountain torrent: Raise Beck, central Lake District, EnglandEARTH SURFACE PROCESSES AND LANDFORMS, Issue 9 2002R. M. Johnson Abstract Raise Beck is a mountain torrent located in the central Lake District fells, northern England (drainage area of 1·27 km2). The torrent shows evidence of several major flood events, the most recent of which was in January 1995. This event caused a major channel avulsion at the fan apex diverting the main flood flow to the south, blocking the A591 trunk road and causing local flooding. The meteorological conditions associated with this event are described using local rainfall records and climatic data. Records show 164 mm of rainfall in the 24 hours preceding the flood. The peak flood discharge is reconstructed using palaeohydrological and rainfall,runoff methods, which provide discharge values of 27,74 m3 s,1, and 4,6 m3 s,1, respectively. The flood transported boulders with b-axes up to 1400 mm. These results raise some important general questions about flood estimation in steep mountain catchments. The geomorphological impact of the event is evaluated by comparing aerial photographs from before and after the flood, along with direct field observations. Over the historical timescale the impact and occurrence of flooding is investigated using lichenometry, long-term rainfall data, and documentary records. Two major historical floods events are identified in the middle of the nineteenth century. The deposits of the recent and historical flood events dominate the sedimentological evidence of flooding at Raise Beck, therefore the catchment is sensitive to high magnitude, low frequency events. Following the 1995 flood much of the lower catchment was channelized using rip-rap bank protection, re-establishing flow north towards Thirlmere. The likely success of this management strategy in containing future floods is considered, based on an analysis of channel capacities. It is concluded that the channelization scheme is only a short-term solution, which would fail to contain the discharge of an event equivalent to the January 1995 flood. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] BRITISH SOCIAL HOUSING AND THE VOLUNTARY SECTORECONOMIC AFFAIRS, Issue 2 2008Robert Whelan Housing for the poor was a thriving part of the voluntary sector in the nineteenth century, providing thousands of homes through hundreds of societies without subsidy. It was undermined by state action which has effectively driven other providers from the field. [source] IN DEFENCE OF EMPIRES1ECONOMIC AFFAIRS, Issue 4 2003Deepak Lal This article argues the case for empires. They provided global order in the nineteenth century. Their dissolution in the twentieth century resulted in global disorder. A blind spot in the classical liberal tradition was its assumption that international order would be a spontaneous by-product of limited government and unilateral free trade practised at home. This denial of power politics flowed into twentieth-century Wilsonianism. Now, there is no alternative to US imperial power to supply the global Pax. Whether the USA is willing to fulfil this role is open to question. [source] Explaining stunting in nineteenth-century FranceECONOMIC HISTORY REVIEW, Issue 2 2010GILLES POSTEL-VINAY We examine the share of French men with stunted growth during the nineteenth century using data on potential army conscripts. The share of stunted men (those whose height was below 1.62 metres) in France's 82 departments declined dramatically across the century, especially in the south and west. Our models examine the role of education expenditure, health care personnel, local wages, asset distribution, and a dummy variable for Paris as determinants of stunting, decomposing changes over time into the effects of levels and returns to the various explanatory variables used in the model of heights. All covariates are strongly significant, with education spending being particularly important. Our evidence clearly indicates that living in congested Paris contributed to poor health. [source] Gresham on horseback: the monetary roots of Spanish American political fragmentation in the nineteenth century1ECONOMIC HISTORY REVIEW, Issue 3 2009MARIA ALEJANDRA IRIGOIN This article deals with the political economic consequences of the disappearance of the Spanish silver peso standard in Spanish America, the longest monetary union that ever existed. With the Napoleonic invasion of Spain in 1808, the fiscal and political structure of the empire imploded and most colonies became independent. Regional competition for revenues exacerbated budget shortfalls driven by military expenditure. Local elites established in former colonial Treasury districts started highly diverse monetary experiments to procure funds. Those in control of mint houses started minting their own coins or debased existing silver currency. Elsewhere, inconvertible paper currency was also created to meet budget deficits. As a result, the most valuable feature of the Spanish American silver peso, its quality standard, was broken and the standard that had organized the early modern international economy for more than 300 years ceased to exist altogether. In Spanish America, as diverse monies co-existed within a formerly highly integrated economic space, a widespread Gresham's law effect exacerbated the conflict among local and regional elites. This fostered the political fragmentation of colonial Spanish America into an increasing number of political and monetary sovereign entities during the nineteenth century. [source] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||