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Archaeological Contexts (archaeological + context)
Selected AbstractsTHE OCCURRENCE OF PALYGORSKITE IN THE YUCATÁN PENINSULA: ETHNO-HISTORIC AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXTS*ARCHAEOMETRY, Issue 2 2009M. SÁNCHEZ DEL RÍO Palygorskite is a rare clay mineral used by the ancient Mayas for fabricating the Maya blue pigment and for other purposes. It seems to have been obtained from a restricted area in the Yucatán peninsula where important archaeological sites are found. Geological samples from different localities in this area show a high content in palygorskite, indicating that this clay is widespread in Yucatán. Combining structural, morphological, compositional and geochemical methods, we analysed the common characteristics of Yucatecan palygorskites, and compared them with palygorskites from other origins around the world. These results can be used for defining a fingerprint of Yucatecan palygorskite to be used in provenance studies of archaeological artefacts, in particular the Maya blue pigment. [source] "Specialized" Production in Archaeological Contexts: Rethinking Specialization, the Social Value of Products, and the Practice of ProductionARCHEOLOGICAL PAPERS OF THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, Issue 1 2007Rowan K. Flad The contributions to this volume are introduced via a critical review of terms and concepts used in craft production studies today. Recent detailed contextual and technological analyses of artifacts from all aspects of complex societies have revealed interesting patterns that are difficult to conceptualize using a purely economic framework. Furthermore, interest in practice theory, and sociocultural theory in general, has shifted some foci of archaeological investigation toward the social aspects of production and specialization. New data, methods, and theories require a rethinking of what is meant by specialized production, and this chapter represents an introduction to this endeavor. [source] A Shipwreck near Kinlochbervie, Sutherland, Scotland, UKINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, Issue 1 2004Philip Robertson Investigations off Kinlochbervie, conducted between 1997 and 2003, have recorded a shipwreck site and recovered the largest collection of Italian Renaissance pottery ever discovered from an archaeological context in Scotland. This paper details work carried out and discusses the possible dating and nationality of the ship in the context of maritime contacts within western Europe at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries. © 2004 The Nautical Archaeology Society [source] A shipwreck cargo of Sevillian pottery from the Studland Bay wreck, Dorset, UKINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, Issue 1 2003Alejandra Gutiérrez This article is an account of the pottery found at the Studland Bay wreck, Poole. The assemblage includes an important group of Spanish pottery made at Seville at the beginning of the 16th century, including the largest group of lustreware and blue-and-purple wares ever found in an archaeological context. These wares were probably carried as cargo and collected at a stopping-off point along the itinerary of the ship, probably to be sold in northern Europe. [source] The treatment of leprosy in 19th-century London: a case study from St Marylebone cemeteryINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF OSTEOARCHAEOLOGY, Issue 3 2009D. WalkerArticle first published online: 19 MAY 200 Abstract A young adult male, context [825], exhibiting a suite of proliferative and erosive skeletal changes, was excavated from the old burial ground of St Marylebone, London, in 2005 by the Museum of London Archaeology Service (MoLAS). Although pathognomonic rhinomaxillary changes were absent, a number of lesions were of a type previously recorded in individuals suffering from lepromatous leprosy, including resorption of the alveolar process of the maxillae and the digits of the right hand, osteomyelitis in the left ulna and collapse of the left ankle. Whilst this infectious disease was widespread in medieval Britain, it had declined by the 19th century, and has been identified in only one other post-medieval archaeological context. The right leg of [825] had been surgically amputated. This form of intervention was a recognised treatment for the complications of the disease, where neuropathic damage of limbs led to life-threatening infection. The healing of the amputation demonstrates the success of the operation, and the skill of the surgeon. Although the identity of the affected individual is unknown, burial within St Marylebone cemetery implies a level of status not frequently associated with leprosy sufferers in the past. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry in archaeometric researchMASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS, Issue 1 2010Martín Resano Abstract Laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICPMS) is a solid sampling technique in continuous expansion in all types of research fields in which direct multi-elemental or isotopic analysis is required. In particular, this technique shows unique characteristics that made its use recommended in many archaeometric applications, where valuable solid artifacts are often the target samples, because it offers flexibility to achieve spatially resolved information with high detection power and a wide linear range, in a fast and straightforward way, and with minimal sample damage. The current review provides a systematic survey of publications that reported the use of LA-ICPMS in an archaeological context, highlights its main capabilities and limitations and discusses the most relevant parameters that influence the performance of this technique for this type of application. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc., Mass Spec Rev 29:55,78, 2010 [source] Eating between the Lines: Mississippian Migration and Stable Carbon Isotope Variation in Fort Ancient PopulationsAMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, Issue 3 2009Robert A. Cook ABSTRACT Appreciating variation along the edges of traditional archaeological Culture Historical boundaries requires close consideration of social contexts associated with culture contact. We focus on dietary variation as a function of these concerns through a case study of Fort Ancient populations who, on average, consumed lower quantities of maize than their Mississippian neighbors as determined by stable carbon isotope ratios of bone collagen. However, this dichotomy is not as rigid as initially thought, with some Fort Ancient burials producing stable carbon isotope ratios similar to Mississippian cases. Detailed investigation of internal variation of carbon isotopes for human burials at the SunWatch site provides evidence that contact included small-scale Mississippian migrations to Fort Ancient sites. The main conclusion is that variation in diet and archaeological context can be a useful approach for examining prehistoric migration. [source] Imaging geophysical data,taking the viewer into accountARCHAEOLOGICAL PROSPECTION, Issue 1 2004T. J. Dennis Abstract A common way of presenting geophysical data from two-dimensional sources is as a grey-scale image. Some theoretical background to discrete image representation is described, and the deleterious effects of inappropriate (too sparse) sampling and display of such images discussed in an archaeological context. In high-quality images, such as magazine illustrations or digital television, the sampling densities can be sufficiently high to avoid the appearance of artefacts. Geophysical images in contrast are often sampled at very low densities; if the effective area of each sample is significantly less than the sample spacing, then the classic effect called ,aliasing' in communication engineering, caused by the violation of Nyquist's criterion, will be seen. Knowledge of the sensor's footprint can be used to select an appropriate sample density, and so minimize this source of distortion. To maximize the visibility of what may be low-contrast structures immersed in a high level of background noise, it is helpful also to consider the bandpass nature of the spatial frequency response of the human visual system. The non-linear phenomenon of visual masking is shown to influence the choice on presentation methods. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] CHEMICAL COMPARISON OF RARE CHINESE WHITE POTTERY FROM FOUR SITES OF THE ERLITOU STATE: RESULTS AND ARCHAEOMETRICAL IMPLICATIONSARCHAEOMETRY, Issue 5 2010BAO-PING LI White pottery is among the most significant finds from China's earliest state, Erlitou (c. 1900,1500 bc). Samples were primarily discovered in small numbers from elite tombs of a few sites, leading to the hypothesis that they were made at only a few locations and then circulated regionally as prestige items. To facilitate determining provenances, we compare the ICP,MS trace elements and TIMS Sr isotopes of whiteware with two soil samples from Nanwa, a possible manufacturing site, and with shards found at three other sites: Erlitou, Huizui and Nanzhai. The Nanwa shards demonstrate special elemental and Sr isotopic features. Considering the chemical observation and archaeological background together, we propose that Nanwa was a centre for whiteware production, although the two soil samples we collected there were probably not the exact materials used. Some whiteware pieces from Erlitou, Huizui and Nanzhai fall in the chemical field defined by Nanwa samples, indicating that they were possibly made at Nanwa. Many other samples from these three sites plot outside the Nanwa field, implying they were probably not Nanwa products. This study demonstrates that while chemical sourcing is very useful, firm archaeological context must remain the cornerstone of such research. [source] LUSTRE-DECORATED CERAMICS FROM A 15TH TO 16TH CENTURY PRODUCTION IN SEVILLE*ARCHAEOMETRY, Issue 1 2010A. POLVORINOS DEL RIO A set of 17 fragments of ceramics have been uncovered on the occasion of excavations of a workshop in Triana near Seville. These ceramics are typical of objects that are not commonly encountered in present collections in spite of intensive production during the 15th,16th centuries. Chemical and mineralogical analyses have been performed using various techniques (X-ray fluorescence and diffraction, SEM, ion beam analyses). The majority of the ceramic sherds represent the diversity of the Seville production; three fragments recovered in the same archaeological context were not locally produced and belong to the production of eastern Spain (Valence area). The ceramic bodies of the Seville sherds are compatible with the use of clays from the Guadalquivir valley. The glaze and the lustre decoration are comparable to those produced in eastern Spain. These conclusions are based on data that represent the production of a single workshop in Seville; the scatter of the data is due to variations in the processing and/or to alterations during the five centuries of burial of the ceramic fragments. [source] CLAY RESOURCES AND TECHNICAL CHOICES FOR NEOLITHIC POTTERY (CHALAIN, JURA, FRANCE): CHEMICAL, MINERALOGICAL AND GRAIN-SIZE ANALYSES*ARCHAEOMETRY, Issue 1 2007R. MARTINEAU Many authors have considered pottery manufacturing constraints and sociocultural elements as factors in change in past civilizations over time. The main issue of this research is to better understand the reasons for changes, or choices, in pottery raw materials. The very precise and detailed stratigraphy and cultural succession of occupations is based on dendrochronological data from the lake-dwelling sites of Chalain (Jura, France). Petrographic, palaeontological and chemical analyses were used to determine the nature and origins of the raw materials used by the Neolithic potters. Stratigraphy and dendrochronological data were used to reconstruct in detail the evolution dynamics of fabric changes. Several raw material sources were identified for many of the pottery groups. Each of them was sampled for qualitative experimental tests of pottery forming. The experimental results show a high variability between the sediments tested. This variability was quantitatively estimated by XRF, XRD, the Rietveld method, calcium carbonate quantification and laser grain-size analyses of matrices, indirect measures of plasticity. These analytical results allow a better understanding of the differences observed in the experimental tests. On the basis of these experimental and analytical results, changing parameters such as pottery manufacturing constraints, mineralogical characteristics of raw materials and sociocultural factors are considered. In conclusion, all the social and technical parameters, in each archaeological context, must be taken into account for a better understanding of the changes occurring throughout the chronological sequence. [source] Early pyrotechnology in the Near East: Experimental lime-plaster production at the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B site of Kfar HaHoresh, IsraelGEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, Issue 6 2008Y. Goren A characteristic hallmark of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) in the southern Levant was the extensive use of lime plaster for architectural and other purposes. Yet no obvious kilns have been identified in archaeological contexts. Here we present details of an experimental pit-kiln modeling lime-plaster production based on observed burnt stone accumulations in pits at the PPNB site of Kfar HaHoresh in the lower Galilee. The experimental kiln was loaded in layers with ,500 kg of limestone (pebbles and stones) and ,1000 kg of fuel (branches and dung). Fired for 24 hours, and reaching a maximum 870°C, the kiln yielded almost 250 kg of quicklime (calcium oxide, CaO). Micromorphological samples, general observations, and scaled plan view drawings made immediately following and nine years after ignition demonstrate that the original shape of the kiln and residual quicklime within and around it rapidly dissipated through bioturbation, trampling by animals, erosion, rain, and exposure to the elements. This could account for the seeming absence of kilns within sites, although they were probably located close to where lime-plaster was applied, given the unstable nature and toxic effects of handling quicklime. Calculations of the manpower and fuel involved indicate that PPNB lime-plaster production may have been less labor intensive and less detrimental to the environment than previously portrayed. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [source] Source selectivity: An assessment of volcanic glass sources in the southern primorye region, far East RussiaGEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, Issue 2 2008Trudy Doelman Artifacts made from volcanic glass have been found in archaeological contexts dating from the Late Palaeolithic (ca. 20,000 yr B.P.) through to the end of the Bronze Age (ca. 2700 yr B.P.) in the southern Primorye region of Far East Russia. A geoarchaeological survey of volcanic glass outcrops assessed the various potential sources to determine their potential for sustained exploitation. A characterization study of source samples and artifacts from 27 spatially and temporally dispersed sites using a combination of PIXE-PIGME and relative density identified which sources had actually been exploited and a technological analysis of the assemblages described patterns of use. The combination of these three approaches shows the impact of a relatively stable geological environment on patterns of procurement and exchange. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [source] Bizygomatic breadth determination in damaged skullsINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF OSTEOARCHAEOLOGY, Issue 5 2010C. L. Oskam Abstract Metric and discriminant function analyses of the skull have been used successfully to determine ancestry and sex from human skeletal remains in both forensic and archaeological contexts. However, skulls are frequently discovered in damaged condition. One structure that is commonly fragmented, even when the rest of the skull is preserved, is the zygomatic arch. The bizygomatic width is an important measurement in craniometry and in forensic facial reconstruction for determining facial width; therefore we propose a simple linear regression model to predict the bizygomatic width of skulls with damaged zygomatic arches. Thirty-one adult skulls originating from the Indian sub-continent were used to measure the bizygomatic width. Then, on the same skulls, a straight steel wire was placed at the superior surface of the temporal and zygomatic origins of the zygomatic arch to simulate the zygomatic arch reconstruction on damaged skulls. These wire measurements were used to fit a simple linear regression model between the bizygomatic widths and the wire measurements, and the estimated regression model; Bizygomatic Width (bone),=,0.61,+,1.02(wire measurement), has a very high R2 value of 0.91. Hence, this model could effectively be used to predict bizygomatic widths based on wire measurements. In addition, the bizygomatic widths and wire measurements were collected from 14 New Zealand European skulls to test the ability of the regression model to determine bizygomatic widths from different ethnic groups. This model accurately predicted the bizygomatic widths in New Zealands of European origin skulls and therefore suggests that this regression model could be used for other ethnic groups. The importance of the bizygomatic width for craniometric analysis makes this regression model particularly useful for analysing archaeological samples. Furthermore, this regression line can be used in the field of forensic facial reconstruction to reconstruct damaged zygomatic arches prior to facial reconstructions. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Mortality date estimation using fetal pronghorn remainsINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF OSTEOARCHAEOLOGY, Issue 1 2008J. N. Fenner Abstract Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) fetal remains are sometimes recovered from archaeological contexts. Pronghorn have consistent reproductive schedules so their remains may provide information on seasonality of site occupation and number of mortality events. To investigate the reliability of fetal remains for seasonality and mortality event assessment, bone size and tooth eruption were measured in a sample of modern fetal pronghorn remains with known mortality dates. Results indicate a strong correlation between bone size and mortality date, but no significant correlation between tooth eruption level and mortality date. Fetal bone size was used to estimate a late April or early May mortality date at both the Oyster Ridge (48UT35) and Trappers Point (48SU1006) archaeological sites. The number of mortality events at Trappers Point was also investigated. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Polydactyly in the prehistoric American SouthwestINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF OSTEOARCHAEOLOGY, Issue 3 2006D. T. Case Abstract General surveys of skeletal collections from Arizona for evidence of trauma and pathology led to the identification of polydactyly in two subadults. Polydactyly is a congenital condition characterised by the presence of extra digits on the hands or feet. Both affected subadults exhibit a sixth digit in the form of a branching fifth metatarsal. One of the affected individuals is an infant from the Tapia del Cerrito site exhibiting Y-shaped fifth metatarsals indicative of postaxial type A polydactyly. The second individual is a juvenile from the Nuvakwewtaqa (Chavez Pass Ruin) site exhibiting a left fifth metatarsal with a lateral branch, also diagnosed as postaxial type A polydactyly. These two cases appear to be the first examples of polydactyly from archaeological contexts identified among subadults, and bring the total number of known cases from the American Southwest to six. Discovery of so many examples of this relatively rare condition amongst the Puebloan people of the Southwest adds to the evidence that, rather than simply being an artistic motif, rock art depictions featuring hands and feet with six digits were probably inspired by observation of the condition amongst living people. Furthermore, burial treatment of the Tapia del Cerrito infant suggests that polydactyly may have conferred a special status on the bearer. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Use of the first rib for adult age estimation: a test of one methodINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF OSTEOARCHAEOLOGY, Issue 5 2005H. Kurki Abstract The human first rib is relatively easy to identify and is often preserved, in comparison with elements such as the fourth rib and pubic symphysis. Therefore it is potentially a valuable skeletal element for estimating age in forensic and archaeological contexts. A method of adult age estimation using the first rib (Kunos et al., 1999) is tested on a sample of known age skeletons from the J.C.B. Grant Collection (n,=,29, mean age,=,55.7 years). The high correlation coefficient (r,=,0.69) and moderate coefficient of determination (r2,=,0.47) demonstrate agreement between the known and estimated ages, suggesting that the first rib demonstates morphological changes with age. The inaccuracy and bias are high (all ages inaccuracy,=,10.4 years, bias,=,4.7 years) but comparable to several other age estimation methods in common use. Although the results are not as good for younger age categories (<,50 years: inaccuracy and bias rank ninth of nine age estimation methods), the inaccuracy and bias for the older age categories are relatively low (60,+ years inaccuracy,=,8.9 years, ranks third out of nine; bias,=,,,5.8 years, ranks first out of nine) compared with other age estimation methods. The first rib method is reasonably precise (93% of individuals fall within the limits of agreement of the mean difference between two trials). The first rib method is therefore a useful addition to the methods available for biological profile reconstructions from skeletal remains, especially if it is suspected that the remains represent an older individual. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] The Innovative Materiality of Revitalization Movements: Lessons from the Pueblo Revolt of 1680AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, Issue 3 2008MATTHEW LIEBMANN ABSTRACT, Although Wallace's revitalization movement model has been successfully utilized in scores of ethnographic and ethnohistorical studies of societies throughout the world, revitalization is considerably less well documented in archaeological contexts. An examination of the materiality of revitalization movements affords an opportunity to redress this lack by investigating how material culture creates and constrains revitalization phenomena. In this article, I reconsider the revitalization model through a case study focusing on the archaeology of the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, emphasizing the central role of materiality in the formation and mediation of these movements. In doing so, I examine the archaeological signatures of revitalization movements, concluding that they are highly negotiated and heterogeneous phenomena and that the materiality of these episodes cultivates cultural innovation. I also seek to demonstrate that the distinctive types of material culture produced through revitalization are not epiphenomenal but, rather, are crucially constitutive of revitalizing processes. [source] The Establishment and Defeat of Hierarchy: Inalienable Possessions and the History of Collective Prestige Structures in the Pueblo SouthwestAMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, Issue 2 2004BARBARA J. MILLS ABSTRACT The role of social valuables in establishing and defeating hierarchies in prestate societies is explored through the use of Annette Weiner's concept of "inalienable possessions." Inalienable possessions are objects made to be kept (not exchanged), have symbolic and economic power that cannot be transferred, and are often used to authenticate the ritual authority of corporate groups. Ethnographic examples from Zuni are used to understand the range of individually and collectively owned inalienable objects in Pueblo societies. I then use three classes of these objects from archaeological contexts to gain insight into the history of collective prestige structures in the Southwest. I argue that inalienable goods are more useful than shape prestige goods for understanding the role of social valuables in many nonstate societies, especially those in which inequalities are based on ritual knowledge. [source] Human Behavioral Organization in the Middle Paleolithic: Were Neanderthals Different?AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, Issue 1 2004DONALD O. HENRY Abstract Interwoven with the debate regarding the biologic replacement of Neanderthals by modern humans is the question of the degree to which Neanderthals and modern foragers differed behaviorally. We consider this question through a detailed spatial analysis of artifacts and related evidence from stratified living floors within a 49,69 k.y.a. rock shelter site, Tor Faraj, in southern Jordan. The study involves a critical evaluation of living floors, the identification of site structure, and the decoding of the site structure in an effort to understand how the inhabitants of the shelter organized their behaviors. The site structure of Tor Faraj is also compared to occupations of modern foragers in ethnographic and archaeological contexts. When the information from the excavation of Tor Faraj is considered with evidence from other late Middle Paleolithic sites, there seems to be little basis for the claims that constraints in the behavioral organization of Neanderthals led to their replacement by modern foragers. [source] Technical note: Prediction of sex based on five skull traits using decision analysis (CHAID)AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY, Issue 3 2009Joan C. Stevenson Abstract Osteologists commonly assess the sex of skeletal remains found in forensic and archaeological contexts based on ordinal scores of subjectively assessed sexually dimorphic traits. Using known-sex samples, logistic regression (LR) discriminant functions have been recently developed, which allow sex probabilities to be determined. A limitation of LR is that it emphasizes main effects and not interactions. Chi-square automatic interaction detection (CHAID) is an alternative classification strategy that emphasizes the information in variable interactions and uses decision trees to maximize the probability of correct sex determinations. We used CHAID to analyze the predictive value of the 31 possible combinations of five sexually dimorphic skull traits that Walker used previously to develop logistic regression sex determination equations. The samples consisted of 304 individuals of known sex of English, African American, and European American origin. Based on practical considerations, selection criteria for the best sex predictive trait combinations (SPTCs) were set at accuracies for both sexes of 75% or greater and sex biases lower than 5%. Although several of the trees meeting these criteria were produced for the English and European American samples, none met them for the African American sample. In the series of out-of-sample tests we performed, the trees from the English and combined sample of all groups predicted best. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2009. © 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] ROMANO-EGYPTIAN RED LEAD PIGMENT: A SUBSIDIARY COMMODITY OF SPANISH SILVER MINING AND REFINEMENT*ARCHAEOMETRY, Issue 5 2009M. S. WALTON Samples of red pigment from a group of seven Roman-period Egyptian mummies, known as red-shroud mummies, are investigated. Elemental analysis by inductively coupled plasma time-of-flight mass spectrometry (ICP,TOFMS) shows that the samples contain mostly Pb (83,92% by weight), along with 0.2,2.0% Sn. All of the samples are found to have similar trace element distributions when normalized to the continental crust, suggesting that they share a common geological origin. Lead isotope ratios are found to match the mixed lead sources typically associated with Rio Tinto, Spain , a site extensively mined for silver during the first century ad. Raman microspectroscopy identifies the major phase of each sample to be red lead (Pb3O4) with a minor phase of lead tin oxide (Pb2SnO4). Lead tin oxide does not occur naturally, and its incidental occurrence within the sample indicates that the material was heated under oxidative conditions at temperatures in excess of 650°C. In archaeological contexts, the high-temperature oxidative treatment of lead is typically associated with metallurgical refinement processes such as cupellation. Based on this evidence, it is argued that the pigment was produced out of litharge associated with silver cupellation at the Rio Tinto site. [source] THE POTENTIAL OF CARBONIZED GRAIN TO PRESERVE BIOGENIC 87SR/86SR SIGNATURES WITHIN THE BURIAL ENVIRONMENT*ARCHAEOMETRY, Issue 2 2009A. HEIER Carbonized grains survive for millennia in many archaeological contexts. Their stable structure raises the possibility that they preserve biogenic strontium isotope signatures. This hypothesis was investigated using short-term, laboratory experiments with modern grain immersed in Chalk solution. HCl leaching removed > 95% of secondary alteration from charred grain, and isotope ratios close to the starting value were recovered. This could not be achieved with uncharred grains. HCl leaching of archaeological carbonized grains produced comparable levels of decontamination. Although preliminary, these results suggest that strontium isotope analysis of archaeological carbonized grains from calcareous burial contexts could be used to investigate ancient trade and agriculture. [source] | ||||||||||||||||