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Mid-19th Century (mid-19th + century)
Selected AbstractsA history and review of school meal standards in the UKJOURNAL OF HUMAN NUTRITION & DIETETICS, Issue 2 2009C. E. L. Evans Abstract This review details the history of school meals in the UK, from their origin in the mid-19th Century, to the present day, and provides a summary of how each country has independently developed its own food and or nutrient-based standards for school meals. The standards in place in the UK are amongst some of the most detailed and comprehensive in the world. Regular monitoring to ensure that these standards are being met and that schools are improving healthy eating is essential to their success. Of no lesser importance are assessments to determine whether changes to school meals are having an impact on the diets of school children. It is early days in terms of evaluation because food-based standards have only recently been introduced and nutrient-based standards are in the process of being developed and implemented. Studies in England provide some evidence that the re-introduction of standards for school food is having a positive impact on both pupil's food choices and the nutritional profile of school lunches. At present, there does not appear to be a pattern between current obesity levels and the types of school meals provided, although it is anticipated that, in the long term, these comprehensive standards may contribute to a less obesogenic environment. [source] The internal cranial anatomy of the Plesiosauria (Reptilia, Sauropterygia): evidence for a functional secondary palateLETHAIA, Issue 4 2006Marie-Céline Buchy In the late 19th Century, the choanae (or internal nares) of the Plesiosauria were identified as a pair of palatal openings located rostral to the external nares, implying a rostrally directed respiratory duct and air path inside the rostrum. Despite obvious functional shortcomings, this idea was firmly established in the scientific literature by the first decade of the 20th Century. The functional consequences of this morphology were only re-examined by the end of the 20th Century, leading to the conclusion that the choanae were not involved in respiration but instead in underwater olfaction, the animals supposedly breathing with the mouth agape. Re-evaluation of the palatal and internal cranial anatomy of the Plesiosauria reveals that the traditional identification of the choanae as a pair of fenestrae situated rostral to the external nares appears erroneous. These openings more likely represent the bony apertures of ducts that lead to internal salt glands situated inside the maxillary rostrum. The ,real' functional choanae (or caudal interpterygoid vacuities), are situated at the caudal end of the bony palate between the sub-temporal fossae, as was suggested in the mid-19th Century. The existence of a functional secondary palate in the Plesiosauria is therefore strongly supported, and the anatomical, physiological, and evolutionary implications of such a structure are discussed. [source] Lessons from the past: the collapse of Jamaican coral reefsFISH AND FISHERIES, Issue 2 2009Marah J. Hardt Abstract Since Pre-Columbian times, humans have exploited Jamaican marine ecosystems with significant consequences for flora and fauna. This study focuses on the history of reef fish exploitation in Jamaica, from first human occupation to the present day, to determine how past fishing activities contributed to subsequent declines in the coral reef ecosystem. The pattern of declining reef fish populations was nonlinear. Reef fish first declined in prehistoric times but then potentially recovered, following genocide of the native human population. Reduced fishing pressure lasted until the mid-19th century. At that time, depletion of reef fish populations again occurred with a precipitous decline from the 1850s to the 1940s. The final shift from relatively abundant to overfished marine fauna corresponded to subtle changes in fish trap design as well as development of recreational fishing. Government subsidies throughout the second half of the 20th century exacerbated the declines. This analysis shows that local artisanal fisheries with relatively low levels of effort and seemingly subtle shifts in technology can significantly impact the coral reef ecosystem and that declines occurred decades to centuries before modern ecological studies began. This research shows how historical analysis can be a powerful tool to minimize shifted baselines and establish realistic targets for recovery and sustainable management of marine ecosystems. [source] Single and multigrain quartz-luminescence dating of irrigation-channel features in Santa Fe, New MexicoGEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, Issue 4 2009Glenn W. Berger Acequias (irrigation channels and ditches) were used by Spanish settlers, their descendants, and Native Americans in New Mexico. Several such features were recently excavated in Santa Fe, but material for numeric dating was difficult to find. Therefore, for this high-energy-deposition irrigation-feature setting we applied optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) sediment dating methods to determine the timing of last filling of some of these acequias. We report multigrain single-aliquot quartz (MGSAQ) OSL dating results and the first single-grain quartz (SGQ) OSL dating results for irrigation features. One sample yielded an average age of 96 ± 13 yr, consistent with the maximum expected age of 127 yr (before 2007). An OSL age of 175 ± 15 yr for another sample delimits a sedimentation event since the first construction of that feature ca. 300 yr ago. A sample known to be younger than 400,450 yr but predating the mid-19th century gave an SGQ age of 376 ±31 yr. These results indicate that: (1) Regional quartz in New Mexico is highly favorable to OSL dating; (2) in this setting, SGQ OSL dating is preferred to MGSAQ dating; and (3) for the last 500,600 yr, SGQ OSL dating in such settings is preferred to 14C dating because OSL dating lacks those ambiguities inherent in converting 14C ages to calendar years. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [source] IDENTIFICATION OF CLIMATE CONTROLS ON THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR OF THE SUBARCTIC GLACIER SALAJEKNA, NORTHERN SCANDINAVIAGEOGRAFISKA ANNALER SERIES A: PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, Issue 1 2005PER KLINGBJER ABSTRACT. In this paper we describe the dynamic behaviour of Salajekna, a valley glacier, over the last 200 years using terrestrial observations, in situ measurements, remote sensing observations and glacier reconstructions. The response time of the glacier was calculated using analytical models and field measurements. We were subsequently able to attribute specific dynamic responses to climate trends in the available climate record. The glacier's historical maximum extension was reached around 1880,1910 and was the result of a more continental climate with multi-modal airflows in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. A transition to more maritime conditions in the mid-19th century resulted in a near-continuous 20th century retreat before the glacier adjusted to a near-steady state. [source] Re-Dating the Moraines at Skálafellsjökull and Heinabergsjökull using different Lichenometric Methods: Implications for the Timing of the Icelandic Little Ice Age MaximumGEOGRAFISKA ANNALER SERIES A: PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, Issue 4 2004Krista M. Mckinzey Abstract Little Ice Age (LIA) moraines along the margins of Skálafellsjökull and Heinabergsjökull, two neighbouring outlet glaciers flowing from the Vatnajökull ice-cap, have been re-dated to test the reliability of different lichenometric approaches. During 2003, 12 000 lichens were measured on 40 moraine fragments at Skálafellsjökull and Heinabergsjökull to provide surface age proxies. The results are revealing. Depending on the chosen method of analysis, Skálafellsjökull either reached its LIA maximum in the early 19th century (population gradient) or the late 19th century (average of five largest lichens), whereas the LIA maximum of Heinabergsjökull occurred by the mid-19th century (population gradient) or late-19th century (average of 5 largest lichens). Discrepancies (c. 80 years for Skálafellsjökull and c. 40 years for Heinabergsjökull) suggest that the previously cited AD 1887 LIA maxima for both glaciers should be reassessed. Dates predicted by the lichen population gradient method appear to be the most appropriate, as mounting evidence from other geochronological reconstructions and sea-ice records throughout Iceland tends to support an earlier LIA glacier maximum (late 18th to mid-19th century) and probably reflects changes in the North Atlantic Oscillation. These revised chronologies shed further light on the precise timing of the Icelandic LIA glacier maximum, whilst improving our understanding of glacier-climate interactions in the North Atlantic. [source] Long-term land-cover changes in the Belgian Ardennes (1775,1929): model-based reconstruction vs. historical mapsGLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY, Issue 7 2002C. C. Petit Abstract Understanding long-term human-environment interactions requires historical reconstruction of past land-cover changes. The objective of this study is to reconstruct past land-use and land-cover changes in a rural municipality of the Belgian Ardennes over the last 250 years. Two approaches were compared. The first approach produced backward projections based on a mechanistic model which computes the demand for different land uses under the assumption of an equilibrium between the production and consumption of resources. The second approach involved using a series of historical maps to extract directly land-use areas. A stochastic Markov chain model was also used to project backward missing land-cover data in the time series. The consistency between the results obtained with the different approaches suggests that land-use area can be successfully reconstructed on the basis of the mechanistic model, under conditions of a subsistence farming system and a closed economy. Land-use/cover changes in the Belgian Ardennes from 1775 to 1929 were more driven by the interventionist measures of the Belgian government and by technological progress than by the ,pressure' of the growing population and livestock. Thanks to agricultural intensification, a decrease in land under human use was supporting increasing human and livestock populations from 1846 to 1880. Reforestation has accelerated since the mid-19th century. This case study illustrates the highly dynamic and non-linear character of land-use change trajectories over long time periods and their strong interactions with the history of societies. [source] Air temperatures at Armagh Observatory, Northern Ireland, from 1796 to 2002INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLIMATOLOGY, Issue 8 2005C. J. Butler Abstract Three independent mean temperature series for Armagh Observatory, covering the period 1796,2002 have been calibrated and corrected for the time of reading and exposure. Agreement between the three series is good in regions of overlap. With a short gap in the Armagh data from 1825 to 1833 filled by data from two stations in Dublin, the resulting series is the longest for the island of Ireland and one of the longest for any single site in the British Isles. Over the past 207 years, we note that temperatures in Armagh, in all seasons, show a gradual overall trend upwards. However, there are seasonal differences: summer and spring temperatures have increased by only half as much as those in autumn and winter. This is partly due to the exceptionally cold winters and autumns experienced prior to 1820. Relative to the overall trend, warm periods occurred in Ireland, as in other parts of Europe, in the mid-19th century, in the mid-20th century and at the end of the 20th century. Relatively cool temperatures prevailed in the early 19th century, in the 1880s and in the 1970s. Thus, if the baseline against which current temperatures are compared were moved from the late 19th century to include the earlier warm period, the apparent warming at the end of the late 20th century would be correspondingly reduced. A gradual decline in the daily temperature range at Armagh since 1844 may have resulted from higher minimum temperatures associated with increased cloudiness. A 7.8 year periodicity is identified in winter and spring mean temperatures at Armagh, which is probably a consequence of the North Atlantic oscillation. Copyright © 2005 Royal Meteorological Society [source] Ketones: Metabolism's Ugly DucklingNUTRITION REVIEWS, Issue 10 2003Theodore B. Vanitallie MD Ketones were first discovered in the urine of diabetic patients in the mid-19th century; for almost 50 years thereafter, they were thought to be abnormal and undesirable by-products of incomplete fat oxidation. In the early 20th century, however, they were recognized as normal circulating metabolites produced by liver and readily utilized by extrahepatic tissues. In the 1920s, a drastic "hyperketogenic" diet was found remarkably effective for treatment of drug-resistant epilepsy in children. In 1967, circulating ketones were discovered to replace glucose as the brain's major fuel during the marked hyperketonemia of prolonged fasting. Until then, the adult human brain was thought to be entirely dependent upon glucose. During the 1990s, dietinduced hyperketonemia was found therapeutically effective for treatment of several rare genetic disorders involving impaired neuronal utilization of glucose or its metabolic products. Finally, growing evidence suggests that mitochondrial dysfunction and reduced bioenergetic efficiency occur in brains of patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Because ketones are efficiently used by mitochondria for ATP generation and may also help protect vulnerable neurons from free radical damage, hyperketogenic diets should be evaluated for ability to benefit patients with PD, AD, and certain other neurodegenerative disorders. [source] Not just computers and companionsASTRONOMY & GEOPHYSICS, Issue 4 2009Article first published online: 20 JUL 200 Mary Brück's historical survey is the second RAS Series publication, and one that gives an insight into the different roles taken by women astronomers: original thinkers, computers, educators, and entrepreneurs. In this extract from the chapter "The Labyrinths of Heaven", we find out how Maria Short (c1788,1869) came to own and operate an observatory open to the public in the mid-19th century. [source] The history of lithium therapyBIPOLAR DISORDERS, Issue 2009Edward Shorter The use of lithium in psychiatry goes back to the mid-19th century. Early work, however, was soon forgotten, and John Cade is credited with reintroducing lithium to psychiatry for mania in 1949. Mogens Schou undertook a randomly controlled trial for mania in 1954, and in the course of that study became curious about lithium as a prophylactic for depressive illness. In 1970, the United States became the 50th country to admit lithium to the marketplace. Meanwhile, interest in lithium for the prophylaxis of depression was growing apace and today the agent is widely prescribed for that indication, even though it has not been accepted by the Food and Drug Administration. Lithium was almost derailed by a small group of opponents from the Maudsley Hospital and its status today is threatened by the "mood stabilizers." [source] A Short History Of Nitroglycerine And Nitric Oxide In Pharmacology And PhysiologyCLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL PHARMACOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY, Issue 4 2000Neville Marsh SUMMARY 1. Nitroglycerine (NG) was discovered in 1847 by Ascanio Sobrero in Turin, following work with Theophile-Jules Pelouze. Sobrero first noted the ,violent headache' produced by minute quantities of NG on the tongue. 2. Constantin Hering, in 1849, tested NG in healthy volunteers, observing that headache was caused with ,such precision'. Hering pursued NG (,glonoine') as a homeopathic remedy for headache, believing that its use fell within the doctrine of ,like cures like'. 3. Alfred Nobel joined Pelouze in 1851 and recognized the potential of NG. He began manufacturing NG in Sweden, overcoming handling problems with his patent detonator. Nobel suffered acutely from angina and was later to refuse NG as a treatment. 4. During the mid-19th century, scientists in Britain took an interest in the newly discovered amyl nitrite, recognized as a powerful vasodilator. Lauder Brunton, the father of modern pharmacology, used the compound to relieve angina in 1867, noting the pharmacological resistance to repeated doses. 5. William Murrell first used NG for angina in 1876, although NG entered the British Pharmacopoeia as a remedy for hypertension. William Martindale, the pharmaceutical chemist, prepared ,. . . a more stable and portable preparation': 1/100th of a grain in chocolate. 6. In the early 20th century, scientists worked on in vitro actions of nitrate-containing compounds although little progress was made towards understanding the cellular mode of action. 7. The NG industry flourished from 1900, exposing workers to high levels of organic nitrites; the phenomena of nitrate tolerance was recognized by the onset of ,Monday disease' and of nitrate-withdrawal/overcompensation by ,Sunday Heart Attacks'. 8. Ferid Murad discovered the release of nitric oxide (NO) from NG and its action on vascular smooth muscle (in 1977). Robert Furchgott and John Zawadski recognized the importance of the endothelium in acetylcholine-induced vasorelaxation (in 1980) and Louis Ignarro and Salvador Moncada identified endothelial-derived relaxing factor (EDRF) as NO (in 1987). 9. Glycerol trinitrate remains the treatment of choice for relieving angina; other organic esters and inorganic nitrates are also used, but the rapid action of NG and its established efficacy make it the mainstay of angina pectoris relief. [source] | |||||||||||||