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Many Different Ways (many + different_way)
Selected AbstractsThe microstructure of ethanol drinking: genetic and behavioral factors in the control of drinking patternsADDICTION, Issue 8s2 2000Herman H. Samson The concept of craving can be examined in many different ways, depending upon the individual definition of the term. Using the concepts and procedures of regulatory behavior analysis, this review explores behavioral studies in rats that have some relationships to some of the possible processes that underlie the concept of craving in humans. Data are reviewed from studies employing both limited and continuous access to ethanol, examining the role of access availability, ethanol initiation, response cost, time since last access, composition of the ethanol containing solution and genetic selection. From this review, it is clear that rat models can implicate important variables involved in the control of human alcohol consumption. [source] Social Polarization and the Politics of Low Income Mortgage Lending in the United StatesGEOGRAFISKA ANNALER SERIES B: HUMAN GEOGRAPHY, Issue 3 2003Jason Hackworth ABSTRACT The structured inequalities of capital investment and disinvestment are prominent themes in critical urban and regional research, but many accounts portray ,capital' as a global, faceless and placeless abstraction operating according to a hidden, unitary logic. Sweeping political-economic shifts in the last generation demonstrate that capital may shape urban and regional processes in many different ways, and each of these manifestations creates distinct constraints and opportunities. In this paper, we analyze a new institutional configuration in the USA that is reshaping access to wealth among the poor , a policy ,consensus' to expand home-ownership among long-excluded populations. This shift has opened access to some low- and moderate-income households, and racial and ethnic minorities, but the necessary corollary is a greater polarization between those who are able to own and those who are not. We provide a critical analysis of these changes, drawing on national housing finance statistics as well as a multivariate analysis of differences between owners and renters in the 1990s in New York City. As home-ownership strengthens its role as a privatized form of stealth urban and housing policy in the USA, its continued expansion drives a corresponding reconstruction of its value for different groups, and inscribes a sharper axis of property-rights inequalities among owners and renters in the working classes. [source] "It's All About Perspective": Using Simulations in Multicultural TeachingHISTORY COMPASS (ELECTRONIC), Issue 5 2006Kat Williams Many feminist pedagogues create a classroom climate that transforms the student from a passive beneficiary of knowledge to an active participant in the classroom community. This objective is accomplished in many different ways and while there is no way to ensure student participation in the classroom and not one technique that works for every situation, the common thread is the rejection of traditional, passive forms of learning in favor of alternative, active teaching methods. History is not experienced the same way by all people , it is not a seamless narrative or a single story, but a series of competing voices. To demonstrate my use of historical simulations in the classroom this article focuses on World War II and the alternative perspectives, including women's baseball, to which students are exposed and ultimately represent in the simulation. [source] Association between pacifier use and breast-feeding, sudden infant death syndrome, infection and dental malocclusionINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EVIDENCE BASED HEALTHCARE, Issue 6 2005Ann Callaghan RN RM BNurs(Hons) Executive summary Objective, To critically review all literature related to pacifier use for full-term healthy infants and young children. The specific review questions addressed are: What is the evidence of adverse and/or positive outcomes of pacifier use in infancy and childhood in relation to each of the following subtopics: ,breast-feeding; ,sudden infant death syndrome; ,infection; ,dental malocclusion. Inclusion criteria, Specific criteria were used to determine which studies would be included in the review: (i) the types of participants; (ii) the types of research design; and (iii) the types of outcome measures. To be included a study has to meet all criteria. Types of participants,The participants included in the review were healthy term infants and healthy children up to the age of 16 years. Studies that focused on preterm infants, and infants and young children with serious illness or congenital malformations were excluded. However, some total population studies did include these children. Types of research design, It became evident early in the review process that very few randomised controlled trials had been conducted. A decision was made to include observational epidemiological designs, specifically prospective cohort studies and, in the case of sudden infant death syndrome research, case,control studies. Purely descriptive and cross-sectional studies were excluded, as were qualitative studies and all other forms of evidence. A number of criteria have been proposed to establish causation in the scientific and medical literature. These key criteria were applied in the review process and are described as follows: (i) consistency and unbiasedness of findings; (ii) strength of association; (iii) temporal sequence; (iv) dose,response relationship; (v) specificity; (vi) coherence with biological background and previous knowledge; (vii) biological plausibility; and (viii) experimental evidence. Studies that did not meet the requirement of appropriate temporal sequencing of events and studies that did not present an estimate of the strength of association were not included in the final review. Types of outcome measures,Our specific interest was pacifier use related to: ,breast-feeding; ,sudden infant death syndrome; ,infection; ,dental malocclusion. Studies that examined pacifier use related to procedural pain relief were excluded. Studies that examined the relationship between pacifier use and gastro-oesophageal reflux were also excluded as this information has been recently presented as a systematic review. Search strategy, The review comprised published and unpublished research literature. The search was restricted to reports published in English, Spanish and German. The time period covered research published from January 1960 to October 2003. A protocol developed by New Zealand Health Technology Assessment was used to guide the search process. The search comprised bibliographic databases, citation searching, other evidence-based and guidelines sites, government documents, books and reports, professional websites, national associations, hand search, contacting national/international experts and general internet searching. Assessment of quality, All studies identified during the database search were assessed for relevance to the review based on the information provided in the title, abstract and descriptor/MeSH terms, and a full report was retrieved for all studies that met the inclusion criteria. Studies identified from reference list searches were assessed for relevance based on the study title. Keywords included: dummy, dummies, pacifier(s), soother(s), comforter(s), non-nutritive sucking, infant, child, infant care. Initially, studies were reviewed for inclusion by pairs of principal investigators. Authorship of articles was not concealed from the reviewers. Next, the methodological quality of included articles was assessed independently by groups of three or more principal investigators and clinicians using a checklist. All 20 studies that were accepted met minimum set criteria, but few passed without some methodological concern. Data extraction, To meet the requirements of the Joanna Briggs Institute, reasons for acceptance and non-acceptance at each phase were clearly documented. An assessment protocol and report form was developed for each of the three phases of review. The first form was created to record investigators' evaluations of studies included in the initial review. Those studies that failed to meet strict inclusion criteria were excluded at this point. A second form was designed to facilitate an in-depth critique of epidemiological study methodology. The checklist was pilot tested and adjustments were made before reviewers were trained in its use. When reviewers could not agree on an assessment, it was passed to additional reviewers and discussed until a consensus was reached. At this stage, studies other than cohort, case,control and randomised controlled trials were excluded. Issues of clarification were also addressed at this point. The final phase was that of integration. This phase, undertaken by the principal investigators, was assisted by the production of data extraction tables. Through a process of trial and error, a framework was formulated that adequately summarised the key elements of the studies. This information was tabulated under the following headings: authors/setting, design, exposure/outcome, confounders controlled, analysis and main findings. Results, With regard to the breast-feeding outcome, 10 studies met the inclusion criteria, comprising two randomised controlled trials and eight cohort studies. The research was conducted between 1995 and 2003 in a wide variety of settings involving research participants from diverse socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds. Information regarding exposure and outcome status, and potential confounding factors was obtained from: antenatal and postnatal records; interviews before discharge from obstetric/midwifery care; post-discharge interviews; and post-discharge postal and telephone surveys. Both the level of contact and the frequency of contact with the informant, the child's mother, differed widely. Pacifier use was defined and measured inconsistently, possibly because few studies were initiated expressly to investigate its relationship with breast-feeding. Completeness of follow-up was addressed, but missing data were not uniformly identified and explained. When comparisons were made between participants and non-participants there was some evidence of differential loss and a bias towards families in higher socioeconomic groups. Multivariate analysis was undertaken in the majority of studies, with some including a large number of sociodemographic, obstetric and infant covariates and others including just maternal age and education. As might be expected given the inconsistency of definition and measurement, the relationship between pacifier use and breast-feeding was expressed in many different ways and a meta-analysis was not appropriate. In summary, only one study did not report a negative association between pacifier use and breast-feeding duration or exclusivity. Results indicate an increase in risk for a reduced overall duration of breast-feeding from 20% to almost threefold. The data suggest that very infrequent use may not have any overall negative impact on breast-feeding outcomes. Six sudden infant death syndrome case,control studies met the criteria for inclusion. The research was conducted with information gathered between 1984 and 1999 in Norway, UK, New Zealand, the Netherlands and USA. Exposure information was obtained from a variety of sources including: hospital and antenatal records, death scene investigation, and interview and questionnaire. Information for cases was sought within 2 days after death, within 2,4 weeks after death and in one study between 3 and 11 years after death. Information for controls was sought from as early as 4 days of a nominated sudden infant death syndrome case, to between 1 and 7 weeks from the case date, and again in one study some 3,11 years later. In the majority of the studies case ascertainment was determined by post-mortem. Pacifier use was again defined and measured somewhat inconsistently. All studies controlled for confounding factors by matching and/or using multivariate analysis. Generally, antenatal and postnatal factors, as well as infant care practices, and maternal, family and socioeconomic issues were considered. All five studies reporting multivariate results found significantly fewer sudden infant death syndrome cases used a pacifier compared with controls. That is, pacifier use was associated with a reduced incidence of sudden infant death syndrome. These results indicate that the risk of sudden infant death syndrome for infants who did not use a pacifier in the last or reference sleep was at least twice, and possibly five times, that of infants who did use a pacifier. Three studies reported a moderately sized positive association between pacifier use and a variety of infections. Conversely, one study found no positive association between pacifier use at 15 months of age and a range of infections experienced between the ages of 6 and 18 months. Given the limited number of studies available and the variability of results, no meaningful conclusions could be drawn. Five cohort studies and one case,control study focused on the relationship between pacifier use and dental malocclusion. Not one of these studies reported a measure of association, such as an estimate of relative risk. It was therefore not possible to include these studies in the final review. Implications for practice, It is intended that this review be used as the basis of a ,best practice guideline', to make health professionals aware of the research evidence concerning these health and developmental consequences of pacifier use, because parents need clear information on which they can base child care decisions. With regard to the association between pacifier use and infection and dental malocclusion it was found that, due to the paucity of epidemiological studies, no meaningful conclusion can be drawn. There is clearly a need for more epidemiological research with regard to these two outcomes. The evidence for a relationship between pacifier use and sudden infant death syndrome is consistent, while the exact mechanism of the effect is not well understood. As to breast-feeding, research evidence shows that pacifier use in infancy is associated with a shorter duration and non-exclusivity. It is plausible that pacifier use causes babies to breast-feed less, but a causal relationship has not been irrefutably proven. Because breast-feeding confers an important advantage on all children and the incidence of sudden infant death syndrome is very low, it is recommended that health professionals generally advise parents against pacifier use, while taking into account individual circumstances. [source] Impact of organizational change on the delivery of reproductive services: a review of the literatureINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HEALTH PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT, Issue 3 2005Tim Ensor Abstract In order to understand the impact of specific maternal health interventions, it is necessary to understand the likely effect of the health system structure. An important aspect of this structure is the organizational culture. Many systems in low-income countries have been based on a centrally planned and financed system. In recent years a series of organizational changes have been introduced into many systems and these substantially alter the way in which the system operates and impacts on reproductive health care provision. The main changes reviewed in this paper are: (i) decentralization, (ii) privatization and (iii) integration and sector wide approaches. Each of these changes is seen to have important implications for reproductive health. In each case it is clear that the nature of the impact depends crucially on the way it is implemented. Quantifying the impact of these changes remains extremely difficult given the many different ways they can be introduced and the many confounding factors that affect the overall impact. The literature does, however, point to a number of key issues that impinge on the way in which change is likely to affect reproductive health initiatives. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Design of the fuzzy multiobjective controller based on the eligibility methodINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS, Issue 5 2003Hwan-Chun Myung A multiobjective control problem has been handled in many different ways such as fuzzy, neural network and reinforcement learning, etc. Among them, a reinforcement learning method solves a multiobjective control problem without any prior knowledge. In this article, a new reinforcement learning method for a multiobjective control problem is proposed in consideration of its convergence. The proposed method, in which objective eligibility is considered for handling multirewards, reformulates a multiobjective control problem in a form of a reinforcement learning problem under non-Markov environment. Using a similar relation to eligibility, the proposed method dealt with the previous research results of eligibility and was implemented with the concept of a decoupled fuzzy sliding mode control (DFSMC). © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [source] Proximity and inter-organizational collaboration: A literature reviewINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT REVIEWS, Issue 2 2006J. Knoben The proximity concept is used in many different ways in the literature. These dimensions of proximity are, however, defined and measured in many different (sometimes even contradictory) ways, show large amounts of overlap, and often are under- or over-specified. The goal of this paper is to specify the different dimensions of proximity relevant in inter-organizational collaboration more precisely and to provide definitions of these dimensions. The research presented contributes to reducing the ambiguity of the proximity concept as used in the literature. Based on the above, the following research question is addressed in this paper: ,Which dimensions of proximity are relevant in inter-organizational collaboration and how are they defined?' A systematic literature review is presented in order to disentangle the dimensions of the proximity concept. Based on this literature review, three dimensions of proximity relevant in inter-organizational collaboration are distinguished: geographical proximity, organizational proximity and technological proximity. Examples (case studies) from the literature are used to illustrate the current conceptual ambiguity as well as to clarify how the proposed dimensions of proximity reduce this conceptual ambiguity. [source] Global Intellectual Hegemony and the International Development AgendaINTERNATIONAL SOCIAL SCIENCE JOURNAL, Issue 166 2000Branislav Gosovic The worldwide homogenisation of thinking, analysis, and prescription, coupled with the de-legitimisation of social critique, dissent, and alternative thinking in the 1990s, are characteristic of globalisation and of the current international system. The homogenisation is the outcome of global geopolitical changes and the end of the Cold War, with the ascendance of a victorious paradigm. The resulting global intellectual hegemony (GIH) is of special concernto developing countries and to the United Nations. It has undermined the goals and aspirations of the former and contributed to their intellectual disarmament and disempowerment; it has undermined the mandate and role of the latter. This essay discusses GIH in the context of international development cooperation, showing how it is nurtured in many different ways. It is argued that the mechanisms at work are well-known in national politics, in particular inundemocratic societies, and are now projected by new technologies and through the global domination by those with power, a task made easier by the lack of organised and credible opposition. It suggests the need for further study and policy debate of this global phenomenon which seems to have largely passed unnoticed in academic, policy, and public opinion circles. [source] Targeted Expression of SHH Affects Chondrocyte Differentiation, Growth Plate Organization, and Sox9 Expression,JOURNAL OF BONE AND MINERAL RESEARCH, Issue 10 2004Sara Tavella Abstract The role of Hedgehogs (Hh) in murine skeletal development was studied by overexpressing human Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) in chondrocytes of transgenic mice using the collagen II promoter/enhancer. Overexpression caused a lethal craniorachischisis with major alterations in long bones because of defects in chondrocyte differentiation. Introduction: Hedgehogs (Hhs) are a family of secreted polypeptides that play important roles in vertebrate development, controlling many critical steps of cell differentiation and patterning. Skeletal development is affected in many different ways by Hhs. Genetic defects and anomalies of Hhs signaling pathways cause severe abnormalities in the appendicular, axial, and cranial skeleton in man and other vertebrates. Materials and Methods: Genetic manipulation of mouse embryos was used to study in vivo the function of SHH in skeletal development. By DNA microinjection into pronuclei of fertilized oocytes, we have generated transgenic mice that express SHH specifically in chondrocytes using the cartilage-specific collagen II promoter/enhancer. Transgenic skeletal development was studied at different embryonic stages by histology. The expression pattern of specific chondrocyte molecules was studied by immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization. Results: Transgenic mice died at birth with severe craniorachischisis and other skeletal defects in ribs, sternum, and long bones. Detailed analysis of long bones showed that chondrocyte differentiation was blocked at prehypertrophic stages, hindering endochondral ossification and trabecular bone formation, with specific defects in different limb segments. The growth plate was highly disorganized in the tibia and was completely absent in the femur and humerus, leading to skeletal elements entirely made of cartilage surrounded by a thin layer of bone. In this cartilage, chondrocytes maintained a columnar organization that was perpendicular to the bone longitudinal axis and directed toward its outer surface. The expression of SHH receptor, Patched-1 (Ptc1), was greatly increased in all cartilage, as well as the expression of parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) at the articular surface; while the expression of Indian Hedgehog (Ihh), another member of Hh family that controls the rate of chondrocyte maturation, was greatly reduced and restricted to the displaced chondrocyte columns. Transgenic mice also revealed the ability of SHH to upregulate the expression of Sox9, a major transcription factor implicated in chondrocyte-specific gene expression, in vivo and in vitro, acting through the proximal 6.8-kb-long Sox9 promoter. Conclusion: Transgenic mice show that continuous expression of SHH in chondrocytes interferes with cell differentiation and growth plate organization and induces high levels and diffuse expression of Sox9 in cartilaginous bones. [source] Globalization, the new economy, and the commodification of language and identityJOURNAL OF SOCIOLINGUISTICS, Issue 4 2003Monica Heller The globalized new economy is bound up with transformations of language and identity in many different ways (cf., e.g. Bauman 1997; Castells 2000; Giddens 1990). These include emerging tensions between State-based and corporate identities and language practices, between local, national and supra-national identities and language practices, and between hybridity and uniformity. Ethnolinguistic minorities provide a particularly revealing window into these processes. In this paper, I explore ways in which the globalized new economy has resulted in the commodification of language and identity, sometimes separately, sometimes together. The paper is based on recent ethnographic, sociolinguistic research in francophone areas of Canada. [source] A competitive coexistence principle?OIKOS, Issue 10 2009Cathy Neill Competitive exclusion , n species cannot coexist on fewer than n limiting resources in a constant and isolated environment , has been a central ecological principle for the past century. Since empirical studies cannot universally demonstrate exclusion, this principle has mainly relied on mathematical proofs. Here we investigate the predictions of a new approach to derive functional responses in consumer/resource systems. Models usually describe the temporal dynamics of consumer/resource systems at a macroscopic level , i.e. at the population level. Each model may be pictured as one time-dependent macroscopic trajectory. Each macroscopic trajectory is, however, the product of many individual fates and from combinatorial considerations can be realized in many different ways at the microscopic , or individual , level. Recently it has been shown that, in systems with large enough numbers of consumer individuals and resource items, one macroscopic trajectory can be realized in many more ways than any other at the individual , or microscopic , level. Therefore, if the temporal dynamics of an ecosystem are assumed to be the outcome of only statistical mechanics , that is, chance , a single trajectory is near-certain and can be described by deterministic equations. We argue that these equations can serve as a null to model consumer-resource dynamics, and show that any number of species can coexist on a single resource in a constant, isolated environment. Competition may result in relative rarity, which may entail exclusion in finite samples of discrete individuals, but exclusion is not systematic. Beyond the coexistence/exclusion outcome, our model also predicts that the relative abundance of any two species depends simply on the ratio of their competitive abilities as computed from , and only from , their intrinsic kinetic and stoichiometric parameters. [source] Direct and Indirect Climate Change Effects on Photosynthesis and TranspirationPLANT BIOLOGY, Issue 3 2004M. U. F. Kirschbaum Abstract: Climate change affects plants in many different ways. Increasing CO2 concentration can increase photosynthetic rates. This is especially pronounced for C3 plants, at high temperatures and under water-limited conditions. Increasing temperature also affects photosynthesis, but plants have a considerable ability to adapt to their growth conditions and can function even at extremely high temperatures, provided adequate water is available. Temperature optima differ between species and growth conditions, and are higher in elevated atmospheric CO2. With increasing temperature, vapour pressure deficits of the air may increase, with a concomitant increase in the transpiration rate from plant canopies. However, if stomata close in response to increasing CO2 concentration, or if there is a reduction in the diurnal temperature range, then transpiration rates may even decrease. Soil organic matter decomposition rates are likely to be stimulated by higher temperatures, so that nutrients can be more readily mineralised and made available to plants. This is likely to increase photosynthetic carbon gain in nutrient-limited systems. All the factors listed above interact strongly so that, for different combinations of increases in temperature and CO2 concentration, and for systems in different climatic regions and primarily affected by water or nutrient limitations, photosynthesis must be expected to respond differently to the same climatic changes. [source] Efficient Creativity: Constraint-Guided Conceptual CombinationCOGNITIVE SCIENCE - A MULTIDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL, Issue 2 2000Fintan J. Costello This paper describes a theory that explains both the creativity and the efficiency of people's conceptual combination. In the constraint theory, conceptual combination is controlled by three constraints of diagnosticity, plausibility, and informativeness. The constraints derive from the pragmatics of communication as applied to compound phrases. The creativity of combination arises because the constraints can be satisfied in many different ways. The constraint theory yields an algorithmic model of the efficiency of combination. The C3 model admits the full creativity of combination and yet efficiently settles on the best interpretation for a given phrase. The constraint theory explains many empirical regularities in conceptual combination, and makes various empirically verified predictions. In computer simulations of compound phrase interpretation, the C3 model has produced results in general agreement with people's responses to the same phrases. [source] | ||||||||||||||||