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Income Groups (income + groups)
Kinds of Income Groups Selected AbstractsAffordable Prices for Essential Medicines for Developing Countries: Some Economic IssuesDEVELOPMENT POLICY REVIEW, Issue 3 2004Homi Katrak This article discusses some recent developments that may help bring about more affordable prices of essential medicines for developing countries. Governments of developing countries should support campaigns for such prices. Generic competition will also bring gains, though these may differ between different income groups. Enterprises could be persuaded to provide free, or subsidised, medicines for their employees, by the expenditures being allowed against liabilities for profits tax. The UN Global Fund could complement the efforts of public action groups, enhance a government's fiscal capabilities and also encourage other measures to reduce the costs of providing medicines. [source] The distributional effects of carbon and energy taxes: the cases of France, Spain, Italy, Germany and UKENVIRONMENTAL POLICY AND GOVERNANCE, Issue 4 2002Dr. E. J. Symons This paper examines the likely immediate impact effect of some pollution taxes on the tax burden of households in a number of European countries. The total effect on households of such taxes is assessed using input,output analysis. Thus both the direct effect of taxes, through increased fuel prices, and the indirect effect, through increased prices of other goods, can be assessed simultaneously. This input,output approach allows the generation of direct plus indirect pollution intensities for all household consumption categories, for, in principle, a number of pollutants (CO2, SO2, NOx, particulates). These intensities could then be used to assess the impact on households of pollution taxes. This paper concentrates on CO2 and energy, performing a static analysis of the effect of a tax on the carbon or energy content of goods using the known consumption patterns for the various countries, both in aggregate and for different income groups. This allows a first assessment of the regressive/progressive effects of such taxes and an indication of consumer welfare loss. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment. [source] The effects of Taiwan's National Health Insurance on access and health status of the elderlyHEALTH ECONOMICS, Issue 3 2007Likwang Chen Abstract The primary objective of this paper is to evaluate the impact of Taiwan's National Health Insurance program (NHI), established in 1995, on improving elderly access to care and health status. Further, we estimate the extent to which NHI reduces gaps in access and health across income groups. Using data from a longitudinal survey, we adopt a difference-in-difference methodology to estimate the causal effect of Taiwan's NHI. Our results show that Taiwan's NHI has significantly increased utilization of both outpatient and inpatient care among the elderly, and such effects were more salient for people in the low- or middle-income groups. Our findings also reveal that although Taiwan's NHI greatly increased the utilization of both outpatient and inpatient services, this increased utilization of health services did not reduce mortality or lead to better self-perceived general health status for Taiwanese elderly. Measures more sensitive than mortality and self-perceived general health may be necessary for discerning the health effects of NHI. Alternatively, the lack of NHI effects on health may reflect other quality and efficiency problems inherent in the system not yet addressed by NHI. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Explaining the differences in income-related health inequalities across European countriesHEALTH ECONOMICS, Issue 7 2004Eddy van Doorslaer Abstract This paper provides new evidence on the sources of differences in the degree of income-related inequalities in self-assessed health in 13 European Union member states. It goes beyond earlier work by measuring health using an interval regression approach to compute concentration indices and by decomposing inequality into its determining factors. New and more comparable data were used, taken from the 1996 wave of the European Community Household Panel. Significant inequalities in health (utility) favouring the higher income groups emerge in all countries, but are particularly high in Portugal and , to a lesser extent , in the UK and in Denmark. By contrast, relatively low health inequality is observed in the Netherlands and Germany, and also in Italy, Belgium, Spain Austria and Ireland. There is a positive correlation with income inequality per se but the relationship is weaker than in previous research. Health inequality is not merely a reflection of income inequality. A decomposition analysis shows that the (partial) income elasticities of the explanatory variables are generally more important than their unequal distribution by income in explaining the cross-country differences in income-related health inequality. Especially the relative health and income position of non-working Europeans like the retired and disabled explains a great deal of ,excess inequality'. We also find a substantial contribution of regional health disparities to socio-economic inequalities, primarily in the Southern European countries. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Socio-demographic factors related to functional limitations and care dependency among older EgyptiansJOURNAL OF ADVANCED NURSING, Issue 5 2010Thomas Boggatz boggatz t., farid t., mohammedin a., dijkstra a., lohrmann c. & dassen t. (2010) Socio-demographic factors related to functional limitations and care dependency among older Egyptians. Journal of Advanced Nursing,66(5), 1047,1058. Abstract Title.,Socio-demographic factors related to functional limitations and care dependency among older Egyptians. Aim., This paper is a report of a study determining the relationship of socio-demographic factors to functional limitations and care dependency among older care recipients and non-care recipients in Egypt. Background., The population is ageing in Egypt and age-related functional limitations are increasing. Age and gender influence this phenomenon, but its relationship to socio-economic status has not yet been demonstrated for Egypt. Functional limitations are an antecedent to care dependency, which also may be associated with these socio-demographic factors. Method., A cross-sectional study with a two-group comparative design was conducted in Greater Cairo. The sample was composed of 267 non-care recipients and 344 care recipients. Path analysis was used to determine the relationship between variables. Age, gender and acceptance of care were covariates in the multiple regressions. Analyses were conducted separately for care recipients and non-care recipients. Results., Among non-care recipients, lower socio-economic status was related to more functional limitations and higher care dependency. This relationship was not found among care recipients. Conclusion., Older persons from low income groups are more likely to become care dependent but are less able to pay for required care. Currently, untrained volunteer groups of religious organizations try to support these older people in the poorer strata of Egyptian society. Training in the basics of care might help to make their work more effective. [source] The Dynamics of Farm Incomes: Panel data analysis using the Farm Accounts SurveyJOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS, Issue 2 2004Euan Phimister This paper uses longitudinal information from the Scottish Farm Accounts Survey to explore the dynamics of Scottish farm incomes between 1988/89 and 1999/2000. Both the Net Farm Income and Cash Income of farms are considered. The results show high levels of income variability and income mobility within Scottish agriculture. Although exit rates from the lowest income groups remain relatively high even when spells of low income have lasted a number of years, there is evidence of farms with persistent low farm income and farms experiencing repeated spells of low-income. Smaller farm size and having a farmer aged over 65 increase both the probability that a farm will fall into the lowest income group and the length of time spent in that income group. Further the results suggest that the impact of the post-1997 agricultural recession on income mobility depended on the income status of the farm when the recession began. [source] Non-fatal injuries among Pacific infants in Auckland: Data from the Pacific Islands Families First Two Years of Life studyJOURNAL OF PAEDIATRICS AND CHILD HEALTH, Issue 3 2006Philip J Schluter Aims: Child injury is the leading cause of mortality and morbidity in developed countries. While Pacific infant death rates are relatively high in New Zealand, little is known about non-fatal injury rates. We seek to describe maternally reported injury in Pacific infants aged between 0,24 months. Methods: A cohort of Pacific infants born during 2000 in Auckland, New Zealand, was followed. Maternal home interviews were conducted at 6 weeks, 12 months and 24 months postpartum and injury events were recalled. Marginal models using generalized estimating equations (GEEs) were used to analysis the longitudinal data. Results: The inception cohort included 1398 infants at 6 weeks, 1241 infants at 12 months and 1161 infants at 24 months. The age-specific injury incidence per 1000 person-years exposure was estimated at 48 (95% CI: 23, 88) injuries for infants aged 0,6 weeks, 106 (95% CI: 88, 127) injuries for infants aged 7 weeks,12 months and 174 (95% CI: 151, 199) injuries for infants aged 13,24 months. In the multivariable GEE model, older infants (P < 0.001), infants who were male (P = 0.01), born to Pacific Island fathers and non-Pacific Island mothers (P < 0.001), and in higher or unknown income groups (P = 0.01) were significantly more likely to suffer injury events. No significant two-factor interaction with infant age was identified. Conclusions: Among Pacific infants, non-fatal injury is common and injury incidence rates are considerably higher than national levels. Male infants and those born into ethnically mixed families, where the father was of Pacific Island ethnicity and the mother was non-Pacific, were at increased relative risk of injury and might benefit from specific injury prevention targeting. However, given the high injury incidence levels found, we advocate that investigation and targeting of culturally appropriate prevention strategies for all Pacific families with young children is required to reduce injury rates for Pacific infants in New Zealand. [source] INCOME DISTRIBUTION, TECHNICAL CHANGE AND THE DYNAMICS OF INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC INTEGRATIONMETROECONOMICA, Issue 1 2007Michael A. Landesmann ABSTRACT This paper explores the features of a dynamic multisectoral model that focuses on the relationship between income distribution, growth and international specialization. The model is explored both for the steady-state properties and the transitory dynamics of integrated economies. Income inequality affects the patterns of growth and international specialization as the model uses non-linear Engel curves and hence different income groups are characterized by different expenditure patterns. At the same time income distribution is also reflected in the relative wage rates of skilled to unskilled workers, i.e. the skill premium, and hence the wage structure affects comparative costs of industries which have different skill intensities. The model is applied to a situation that analyses qualitatively different economic development strategies of catching-up economies (a ,Latin American' scenario and a ,East Asian' scenario). [source] Alternative approaches to flood mitigation: a case study of BangladeshNATURAL RESOURCES FORUM, Issue 4 2001Frederico Neto Abstract Floods were by far the most damaging type of natural disasters during the 1990s, in terms of both human impacts and socio-economic losses. Vulnerability to flooding disasters around the world is almost always differentiated by the socio-economic conditions of different income groups in the disaster area. In general, the poorer the income group (or the country) the more vulnerable it is likely to be to the adverse impacts of floods. The article argues that Bangladesh is the world's most flood-prone developing country in terms of the relative socio-economic impacts of floods. While conventional flood control strategies tend to be based on structural engineering approaches,such as the construction of large-scale embankments, diversion canals and dams,this article argues that more emphasis should be given to alternative, non-structural measures. The main lesson from recent flooding disasters in Bangladesh is that, in the absence of expensive structural measures, many non-structural ones can go a long way towards reducing vulnerability to and mitigating the impacts of floods. [source] Income related inequality in prescription drugs in Denmark,,PHARMACOEPIDEMIOLOGY AND DRUG SAFETY, Issue 5 2005Jens Gundgaard Abstract Purpose To examine income-related inequity in utilisation of prescription drugs in Funen County, Denmark after a new reimbursement system was implemented. Methods An individual level prescription database was merged with a health survey of 2927 respondents interviewed in 2000 and 2001 about their health status and socio-economic and socio-demographic characteristics. An index of horizontal inequity was used to estimate the degree of inequity in drug utilisation across income groups, using the indirect method of standardisation to control for age, gender and health status as a proxy for need. The results were compared to estimates from a traditional regression analysis. Results The least advantaged with respect to income consume a bigger share of the prescription drugs than the most advantaged. After standardisation for age, gender and health status the least advantaged have a lower share of the drug consumption than expected. However, traditional regression analysis showed no signs of an income effect on the level of consumption of prescription drugs. Conclusions The index of horizontal inequity suggests that some horizontal inequity favouring the better off is present. However, the results deviate from what can be found by traditional regression analysis. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Income, Location and Default: Some Implications for Community LendingREAL ESTATE ECONOMICS, Issue 3 2000Robert Van Order This paper investigates differences in default losses across income groups and neighborhoods, in an effort to see if there are significant differences between default experience on loans to low-income households or low-income neighborhoods and other loans. We find that while defaults and losses are somewhat higher in low-income neighborhoods, default behavior is similar in the sense that responses to negative equity are similar across neighborhoods, and remaining differences are small and might be explained by omitted variables such as those measuring credit history. [source] The Relationship between Personal Income and Net Worth in AustraliaTHE AUSTRALIAN ECONOMIC REVIEW, Issue 2 2007John Creedy This article uses data from the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) Survey to examine the changing distribution of net worth with age. Even after controlling for age, the relationship between income and net worth is positive, except for the older age groups. Inequality falls as age increases. The income poor save in different forms compared with high income individuals of the same age cohort. Holdings of financial assets, especially equity investments and superannuation, are heavily concentrated in the hands of high income earners, while fixed income investments are favoured by the elderly for all income groups. [source] Income and Health Concentration in AustraliaTHE ECONOMIC RECORD, Issue 246 2003Duangkamon Chotikapanich This paper measures the concentration of ill-health among income groups in Australia using health survey data from 1989,90 (Australian Bureau of Statistics 1991) and 1995 (Australian Bureau of Statistics 1997), which contain responses on self-assessed health status and gross personal income. The technique of direct standardisation is used to control for the influence on health status of gender and age. Comparisons of the concentration of ill-health over time and between males and females and persons living in rural and urban areas are reported. For both surveys and all groups, we find that ill-health is concentrated among lower income groups. Concentration measures of ill-health are higher (in absolute terms) for men than for women. In all categories apart from women, the concentration measures fell between 1989,90 and 1995 surveys. [source] Social inequality in use of dental services: relief of pain and extractionsAUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF PUBLIC HEALTH, Issue 5 2008Kaye F. Roberts-Thomson Abstract Objectives:The aim of this study was to assess social inequality in use of dental services by examination of visiting for relief of pain and receipt of extractions. Methods: Data were collected in the period of 2004-06, from a stratified clustered sample of Australians aged 15+ years, using a computer-aided telephone interview. Analysis was restricted to n=10,099 dentate adults. Results: Visiting for relief of pain varied by age, country of birth, education and income with lower odds (Odds ratio, 95%CI) among 55-74 (0.43, 0.35-0.54) and 75+ year-olds (0.22, 0.15-0.33) compared to the 15-34 year-olds, lower odds among Australian-born persons (0.82,0.69-0.98) compared to those born overseas, higher odds for those with no post-secondary education (1.31, 1.07-1.61) and with TAFE, trade or other qualifications (1.34, 1.09-1.66) compared to university qualified, and for those in the <$20,000 income group (1.61, 1.23-2.12), the $20,000-<$40,000 (1.53, 1.20-1.96) and the $40,000-<$60,000 group (1.33, 1.02-1.72) compared to <$80,000+. Receipt of extractions varied by age, sex, qualifications and income, with lower odds of extraction among persons of 75+ years (0.61,0.40-0.93) compared to the youngest age group, higher odds among males (1.34, 1.13-1.59) compared to females, those with no post-secondary education (1.59, 1.27-1.99) and with TAFE, trade or other qualifications (1.49, 1.21-1.84) compared to university qualified, and for the income groups <$20,000 (3.06, 2.27-4.12), $20,000-<40,000 (2.37, 1.80-3.12) and $40,000-<60,000 (1.94 1.47-2.55) compared to the $80,000+ income group. Conclusions: The results indicate social inequality in provision of dental services and suggest an urgent need for the dental profession and governments to address this inequality. [source] Social Inequality: Social inequality in perceived oral health among adults in AustraliaAUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF PUBLIC HEALTH, Issue 2 2004Anne E. Sanders Objective: To establish population estimates of self-assessed tooth loss and subjective oral health and describe the social distribution of these measures among dentate adults in Australia. Methods: Self-report data were obtained from a nationally representative sample of 3,678 adults aged 18,91 years who participated in the 1999 National Dental Telephone Interview Survey and completed a subsequent mail survey. Oral health was evaluated using (1) self-assessed tooth loss, (2) the 14-item Oral Health Impact Profile, and (3) a global six-point rating of oral health. Results: While the absolute difference in tooth loss across household income levels increased at each successive age group (18,44 years, 45,64 years, 65+ years) from 0.7 teeth to 6.1 teeth, the magnitude of the difference was approximately twofold at each age group. For subjective oral health measures, the magnitude of difference across income groups was most pronounced in the 18,44 years age group. In multivariate analysis, low household income, blue-collar occupation, and high residential area disadvantage were positively associated with social impact from oral conditions and pathological tooth loss. Speaking other than English at home (relative to English), low household income (relative to high income), and vocational relative to tertiary education were each associated with more than twice the odds of poor self-rated oral health. Conclusions: Significant social differentials in perceived oral health exist among dentate adults. Inequalities span the socio-economic hierarchy. Implications: In addition to improving overall levels of oral health in the adult community, goals and targets should aim to reduce social inequalities in the distribution of outcomes. [source] Impacts of Food and Energy Price Hikes and Proposed Coping StrategiesCHINA AND WORLD ECONOMY, Issue 6 2008Ling Zhu F01; Q13; Q41 Abstract Based on sample survey data for the years 2006 and 2007, we find that inflation of food and energy prices in China is moving at a slower pace than in the international market; however, the livelihood of low income groups has been significantly impacted. Urban sample households in low income groups have been shifting from consumption of high value food to lower value substitutes; and all of the rural sample households are reducing their total consumption expenditure in real terms. The Engel's coefficient of the rural household enlarged while their proportion of spending on clothing and energy declined. Farmers' households are moving toward more imbalanced diets, and the nutritional status of the poor is apparently deteriorating. The emergency-response measures that the government should implement include stopping subsidies to biofuel producers, who use foodstuffs as inputs, and providing food aid to the poor. The mid-term strategies should include anti-monopoly tactics, improving the market environment for the right competition, and eliminating price distortion. Midterm and long-term socioeconomic policy reform must be undertaken to adjust the social structure, to correct the mechanism of factor price formation, and to transform the pattern of economic growth. [source] | ||||||||||||||||