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Epithelial Surface (epithelial + surface)
Selected AbstractsMultiple sites of L-histidine decarboxylase expression in mouse suggest novel developmental functions for histamineDEVELOPMENTAL DYNAMICS, Issue 1 2001Kaj Karlstedt Abstract Histamine mediates many types of physiologic signals in multicellular organisms. To clarify the developmental role of histamine, we have examined the developmental expression of L-histidine decarboxylase (HDC) mRNA and the production of histamine during mouse development. The predominant expression of HDC in mouse development was seen in mast cells. The HDC expression was evident from embryonal day 13 (Ed13) until birth, and the mast cells were seen in most peripheral tissues. Several novel sites with a prominent HDC mRNA expression were revealed. In the brain, the choroid plexus showed HDC expression at Ed14 and the raphe neurons at Ed15. Close to the parturition, at Ed19, the neurons in the tuberomammillary (TM) area and the ventricular neuroepithelia also displayed a clear HDC mRNA expression and histamine immunoreactivity (HA-ir). From Ed14 until birth, the olfactory and nasopharyngeal epithelia showed an intense HDC mRNA expression and HA-ir. In the olfactory epithelia, the olfactory receptor neurons (ORN) were shown to have very prominent histamine immunoreactivity. The bipolar nerve cells in the epithelium extended both to the epithelial surface and into the subepithelial layers to be collected into thick nerve bundles extending caudally toward the olfactory bulbs. Also, in the nasopharynx, an extensive subepithelial network of histamine-immunoreactive nerve fibers were seen. Furthermore, in the peripheral tissues, the degenerating mesonephros (Ed14) and the convoluted tubules in the developing kidneys (Ed15) showed HDC expression, as did the prostate gland (Ed15). In adult mouse brain, the HDC expression resembled the neuronal pattern observed in rat brain. The expression was restricted to the TM area in the ventral hypothalamus, with the main expression in the five TM subgroups called E1,E5. A distinct mouse HDC mRNA expression was also seen in the ependymal wall of the third ventricle, which has not been reported in the rat. The tissue- and cell-specific expression patterns of HDC and histamine presented in this work indicate that histamine could have cell guidance or regulatory roles in development. © 2001 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] A novel brain receptor is expressed in a distinct population of olfactory sensory neuronsEUROPEAN JOURNAL OF NEUROSCIENCE, Issue 11 2000Sidonie Conzelmann Abstract Three novel G-protein-coupled receptor genes related to the previously described RA1c gene have been isolated from the mouse genome. Expression of these genes has been detected in distinct areas of the brain and also in the olfactory epithelium of the nose. Developmental studies revealed a differential onset of expression: in the brain at embryonic stage 17, in the olfactory system at stage E12. In order to determine which cell type in the olfactory epithelium expresses this unique receptor type, a transgenic approach was employed which allowed a coexpression of histological markers together with the receptor and thus visualization of the appropriate cell population. It was found that the receptor-expressing cells were located very close to the basal membrane of the epithelium; however, the cells extended a dendritic process to the epithelial surface and their axons projected into the main olfactory bulb where they converged onto two or three glomeruli in the dorsal and posterior region of the bulb. Thus, these data provide evidence that this unique type of receptor is expressed in mature olfactory neurons and suggests that it may be involved in the detection of special odour molecules. [source] Mechanisms and modulation of intestinal epithelial repairINFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASES, Issue 1 2001Dr. Axel U. Dignass Abstract The mucosal epithelium of the alimentary tract represents a crucial barrier to a broad spectrum of noxious and immunogenic substances within the intestinal lumen. An impairment of the integrity of the mucosal epithelial barrier is observed in the course of various intestinal disorders including inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), celiac disease, intestinal infections, and various other diseases. Furthermore, even under physiologic conditions temporary damage of the epithelial surface mucosa may be caused by proteases, residential flora, dietary compounds, or other factors. Generally, the integrity of the intestinal mucosal surface barrier is rapidly reestablished even after extensive destruction because of an enormous regenerative capability of the mucosal surface epithelium. Rapid resealing of the surface epithelium is accomplished by epithelial cell migration, also termed epithelial restitution, epithelial cell proliferation, and differentiation. Healing of the intestinal surface epithelium is regulated by a complex network of highly divergent factors, among them a broad spectrum of structurally distinct regulatory peptides that have been identified within the mucosa of the intestinal tract. These regulatory peptides, conventionally designated as growth factors and cytokines, play an essential role in regulating differential epithelial cell functions to preserve normal homeostasis and integrity of the intestinal mucosa. In addition, a number of other peptide molecules such as extracellular matrix factors and blood clotting factors, and also nonpeptide molecules including phospholipids, short-chain fatty acids, adenine nucleotides, trace elements, and pharmacological agents, have been demonstrated to modulate intestinal epithelial repair mechanisms. Some of these molecules may be released by platelets, adjacent stromal cells, inflammatory cells, or injured epithelial and nonepithelial cells and may play an important role in the modulation of intestinal injury. Repeated damage and injury of the intestinal surface are key features of various intestinal disorders including IBD and require constant repair of the epithelium. Enhancement of intestinal repair mechanisms by regulatory peptides or other modulatory factors may provide future approaches for the treatment of diseases that are characterized by injuries of the epithelial surface. [source] An ex vivo swine tracheal organ culture for the study of influenza infectionINFLUENZA AND OTHER RESPIRATORY VIRUSES, Issue 1 2010Sandro F. Nunes Background The threat posed by swine influenza viruses with potential to transmit from pig populations to other hosts, including humans, requires the development of new experimental systems to study different aspects of influenza infection. Ex vivo organ culture (EVOC) systems have been successfully used in the study of both human and animal respiratory pathogens. Objectives We aimed to develop an air interface EVOC using pig tracheas in the study of influenza infection demonstrating that tracheal explants can be effectively maintained in organ culture and support productive influenza infection. Methods Tracheal explants were maintained in the air interface EVOC system for 7 days. Histological characteristics were analysed with different staining protocols and co-ordinated ciliary movement on the epithelial surface was evaluated through a bead clearance assay. Explants were infected with a swine H1N1 influenza virus. Influenza infection of epithelial cells was confirmed by immunohistochemistry and viral replication was quantified by plaque assays and real-time RT-PCR. Results Histological analysis and bead clearance assay showed that the tissue architecture of the explants was maintained for up to 7 days, while ciliary movement exhibited a gradual decrease after 4 days. Challenge with swine H1N1 influenza virus showed that the EVOC tracheal system shows histological changes consistent with in vivo influenza infection and supported productive viral replication over multiple cycles of infection. Conclusion The air interface EVOC system using pig trachea described here constitutes a useful biological tool with a wide range of applications in the study of influenza infection. [source] A histochemical study of the reproductive structures in the flatworm Dugesia leporii (Platyhelminthes, Tricladida)INVERTEBRATE BIOLOGY, Issue 2 2006Gavina Corso Abstract. The functional morphology and the topographic distribution of tissues in the reproductive system of specimens of Dugesia leporii, an endemic Sardinian free-living planarian, are investigated. Data are provided on the nature of epithelial and glandular secretions, spermatophores, and cocoons by histochemistry, light microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. All secreting epithelial cells produce strongly acidic sulfated glycoproteins. Glandular cells secrete strongly acidic sulfated glycoproteins or keratohyalin-like material in the penis bulb, and prekeratin-like material in atrial glands. Secretions of the bursa copulatrix may be involved in the activation of sperm while material produced by the bursa canal and oviducts probably serves to propel spermatophores or sperm and eggs. Mucous secretion of the seminal vesicle may serve to dilute and activate sperm before copulation. The viscous secrete of the ejaculatory duct and vasa deferentia may play a protective role to maintain sperm viability. Materials produced by the penis papilla and atrium probably lubricate the epithelial surface. The bilayered wall of spermatophore made of keratohyalin-like material and strongly acidic sulfated glycoproteins is produced by two gland types of the penis bulb. The bilayered shell of cocoon made of prekeratin-like and keratohyalin-like materials is secreted by both atrial glands and vitelline cells. The cocoon stalk is made of keratohyalin-like material produced by cement glands. Shell glands, producing GAG, are not involved in cocoon formation, but they may be implicated in the dilution and activation of seminal material to favor sperm movement toward the oviducts. [source] Quantitative analysis of epithelial papillae in patients with oral lichen planusJOURNAL OF THE EUROPEAN ACADEMY OF DERMATOLOGY & VENEREOLOGY, Issue 6 2009P López-Jornet Abstract Background, The oral mucosa is relatively vulnerable to pathological processes, and is often affected by autoimmune and malignant diseases. The oral epithelium is normally non-homogeneous, and joins to the connective tissue through interlocking of its downward projections in the form of papillae. Objective, This study aims to conduct a histomorphometric study of the epithelial papillae in patients with oral lichen planus (OLP). Material and method, This study was based on 100 cheek mucosa biopsies from patients with OLP (66 white reticular and 34 atrophic-erosive) (13 males and 87 females, with a mean age of 54.95 ± 13.64 years). A histological and morphometric evaluation was made, based on imaging analysis with MIP software 4.5 for studying the papillary structure in the patients with OLP. Results, The mean epithelial thickness was 227.5 ± 78.5 µm. The different papillary measures , BLS (distance from basal layer to epithelial surface), DPS (distance from dermal papilla top to epithelial surface), DPW (dermal papilla width), and DPD (interdermal papilla distance between two papillae) , yielded no statistically significant differences with respect to age, sex, smoking and clinical form. However, a significant correlation was observed in relation to papilla width and inflammatory infiltrate (P = 0.031). Conclusions, The application of this imaging system is useful for measuring variations in epithelial papillary architecture. Conflicts of interest None declared. [source] Making sense of cilia in disease: The human ciliopathies,AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL GENETICS, Issue 4 2009Kate Baker Abstract Ubiquitous in nature, cilia and flagella comprise nearly identical structures with similar functions. The most obvious example of the latter is motility: driving movement of the organism or particle flow across the epithelial surface in fixed structures. In vertebrates, such motile cilia are evident in the respiratory epithelia, ependyma, and oviducts. For over a century, non-motile cilia have been observed on the surface of most vertebrate cells but until recently their function has eluded us. Gathering evidence now points to critical roles for the mono-cilium in sensing the extracellular environment, and perturbation of this function gives rise to a predictable panoply of clinical problems. We review the common clinical phenotypes associated with ciliopathies and interrogate Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) to compile a comprehensive list of putative disorders in which ciliary dysfunction may play a role. © 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] The Microanatomy of the Palatine Tonsils of the One-Humped Camel (Camelus dromedarius)THE ANATOMICAL RECORD : ADVANCES IN INTEGRATIVE ANATOMY AND EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY, Issue 8 2009Mohamed Zidan Abstract Tonsils form a first line of defense against foreign antigens and are also a route of entry and a replication site for some pathogens. The palatine tonsils are the largest of all the tonsils. Despite their general importance, little is known about the microanatomy of the palatine tonsils of the one-humped camel. Palatine tonsils of 10 clinically healthy male camels were obtained directly after slaughtering for human consumption. The tonsils were examined macroscopically and by light, scanning, and transmission electron microscopy. Palatine tonsils had the unique form of several spherical macroscopic nodules protruding into the pharyngeal lumen. These spherical masses were numerous and close together in the lateral oropharyngeal wall, with a few solitary nodules in the dorsal wall. Each nodule had one or two apical openings to crypts, and was enclosed by an incomplete connective tissue capsule and covered apically with stratified squamous keratinized epithelium. The tonsillar crypt was lined with stratified squamous non keratinized epithelium. Several lymphocytes infiltrated the epithelial layer, forming patches of reticular epithelium. Lymphoid follicles with obvious germinal centers extended under the epithelial surface. Diffusely localized lymphocytes were seen in the interfollicular region. High endothelial venules, dendritic cells, macrophages, and plasma cells were observed among these lymphocytes. The unique arrangement of palatine tonsils in separate units with individual crypts results in a very large surface exposed to antigen and indicates a significant immunological role of palatine tonsils in the camel. Anat Rec, 292:1192,1197, 2009. © 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] Light and Scanning Electron Microscopic Study on the Tongue and Lingual Papillae of the Common Hippopotamus, Hippopotamus amphibius amphibiusTHE ANATOMICAL RECORD : ADVANCES IN INTEGRATIVE ANATOMY AND EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY, Issue 7 2009Ken Yoshimura Scanning electron microscopic micrograph of the connective tissue core of fungiform papillae distributed in the dorsal surface of the tongue in the common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius amphibius). There are various kinds of lingual papillae distributed on the dorsal surface of the tongue among mammal species. It has been revealed that there were morphological differences found on each lingual papilla; filiform, fungiform, conical, foliate, and vallate papillae depend on the mammalian species, especially on the connective tissue cores beneath the epithelial surface. The fungiform connective tissue core of hippopotamus exhibited are quite similar to those found in the other artiodactyls; however, it lacked other typical morphological types of the lingual papillae found on the artiodactyl species. The unique mosaic-like morphological characteristics of the hippopotamus' lingual papillae may represent the unique evolutional or dietary background of this species. See Yoshimura et al., on page 921, in this issue. (Scanning electron micrograph courtesy of the authors). [source] NADPH-Diaphorase Activity and NO Synthase Expression in the Olfactory Epithelium of the BovineANATOMIA, HISTOLOGIA, EMBRYOLOGIA, Issue 3 2010S. Wenisch With 2 figures Summary NADPH-diaphorase (NADPH-d) staining of the bovine olfactory epithelium was compared with the immunohistochemical localization of nitric oxide synthase (NOS), soluble guanylyl cyclase, and cGMP (cyclic guanosine 3,,5,-monophosphate). Out of the three isoforms, only the inducible NOS (NOS-II) was found at the epithelial surface correlating with the strong labelling for NADPH-d. In contrast, light diaphorase staining associated with deeper epithelial regions did not coincide with any NOS immunoreactivity. As there is overlapping expression of NOS-II, soluble guanylyl cyclase and cGMP at the luminal surface morphologically occupied by dendritic knobs of olfactory receptor neurons and microvillar endings of supporting cells, the nitric oxide (NO)/cGMP pathway is likely to be involved in modulating the odour signals during olfactory transduction. [source] Electron Microscopic Study of the Porcine Choroid Plexus EpitheliumANATOMIA, HISTOLOGIA, EMBRYOLOGIA, Issue 6 2008W. De Spiegelaere Summary The choroid plexus (CP) is a highly vascularized organ in the brain ventricles which acts as the main producer of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). A study of the surface ultrastructure of the porcine CP was performed using scanning and transmission electron microscopy. The vascular walls of the capillaries were fenestrated. Epiplexus cells of different morphology were abundant on top of the epithelial surface. Two types of epithelial cells were present, characterized by the presence or absence of microvilli. Some epithelial cells contained cilia while other cells had large secretory protrusions called blebs. In the choroid epithelium of the lateral ventricles, some cells with large depressions were present. Cells with peduncles, such as recently discovered in the buffalo, could not be recognized. The variability of the choroidal surface structures clearly indicates the active role of the CP in the formation and maintenance of the CSF and its components. [source] Light and Electron Microscopic Studies of the Trachea in the One-Humped Camel (Camelus dromedarius)ANATOMIA, HISTOLOGIA, EMBRYOLOGIA, Issue 1 2007A. R. Raji Summary Histology of trachea of camel (Camelus dromedarius) was studied using light, scanning (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Tissue samples taken from the trachea (proximal, middle and distal part) were routinely prepared for histology (LM, EM) and stained with haematoxylin and eosin, Van Giesson (VG), Alcian blue, Periodic acid schiff (PAS), Masson's trichrome (MT), Verhof, PAS,VG and PAS,MT. The trachea of camel consists of 66,75 incomplete cartilaginous rings of hyaline. The lamina epithelium is composed of pseudostratified-ciliated columnar epithelium with many goblet cells. Submucosal layers were loose connective tissue with many elastic fibres. The mucosal and submucosal layers were 517.2 ± 61.6 ,m (n = 20) thick. Submucosal glands were tubuloalveolar with mucous (acidic and neutral) secretions. Trachealis muscle was attached to the inside sheet of tracheal cartilage. Ultrastructural studies showed that surface epithelium is pseudostratified with mucus-producing goblet cells, ciliated and basal cells, similar to other mammals. The ciliated cells contained many mitochondria, oval nucleus and many big granules. In scanning electron microscopy (SEM) studies, viscoelastic layers were observed on the epithelial surface of trachea, and there were highly condensed cilia under this layer. [source] In vivo confocal microscopy of the bulbar conjunctivaCLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL OPHTHALMOLOGY, Issue 4 2009Nathan Efron PhD DSc Abstract Background:, The aim of this work is to develop a more complete qualitative and quantitative understanding of the in vivo histology of the human bulbar conjunctiva. Methods:, Laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM) was used to observe and measure morphological characteristics of the bulbar conjunctiva of 11 healthy human volunteer subjects. Results:, The superficial epithelial layer of the bulbar conjunctiva is seen as a mass of small cell nuclei. Cell borders are sometimes visible. The light grey borders of basal epithelial cells are clearly visible, but nuclei can not be seen. The conjunctival stroma is comprised of a dense meshwork of white fibres, through which traverse blood vessels containing cellular elements. Orifices at the epithelial surface may represent goblet cells that have opened and expelled their contents. Goblet cells are also observed in the deeper epithelial layers, as well as conjunctival microcysts and mature forms of Langerhans cells. The bulbar conjunctiva has a mean thickness of 32.9 ± 1.1 µm, and a superficial and basal epithelial cell density of 2212 ± 782 and 2368 ± 741 cells/mm2, respectively. Overall goblet and mature Langerhans cell densities are 111 ± 58 and 23 ± 25 cells/mm2, respectively. Conclusions:, LSCM is a powerful technique for studying the human bulbar conjunctiva in vivo and quantifying key aspects of cell morphology. The observations presented here may serve as a useful marker against which changes in conjunctival morphology due to disease, surgery, drug therapy or contact lens wear can be assessed. [source] Overview of retinoid metabolism and functionDEVELOPMENTAL NEUROBIOLOGY, Issue 7 2006Rune Blomhoff Abstract Retinoids (vitamin A) are crucial for most forms of life. In chordates, they have important roles in the developing nervous system and notochord and many other embryonic structures, as well as in maintenance of epithelial surfaces, immune competence, and reproduction. The ability of all- trans retinoic acid to regulate expression of several hundred genes through binding to nuclear transcription factors is believed to mediate most of these functions. The role of all- trans retinoic may extend beyond the regulation of gene transcription because a large number of noncoding RNAs also are regulated by retinoic acid. Additionally, extra-nuclear mechanisms of action of retinoids are also being identified. In organisms ranging from prokaryotes to humans, retinal is covalently linked to G protein-coupled transmembrane receptors called opsins. These receptors function as light-driven ion pumps, mediators of phototaxis, or photosensory pigments. In vertebrates phototransduction is initiated by a photochemical reaction where opsin-bound 11- cis -retinal is isomerized to all- trans -retinal. The photosensitive receptor is restored via the retinoid visual cycle. Multiple genes encoding components of this cycle have been identified and linked to many human retinal diseases. Central aspects of vitamin A absorption, enzymatic oxidation of all- trans retinol to all- trans retinal and all- trans retinoic acid, and esterification of all- trans retinol have been clarified. Furthermore, specific binding proteins are involved in several of these enzymatic processes as well as in delivery of all- trans retinoic acid to nuclear receptors. Thus, substantial progress has been made in our understanding of retinoid metabolism and function. This insight has improved our view of retinoids as critical molecules in vision, normal embryonic development, and in control of cellular growth, differentiation, and death throughout life. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Neurobiol 66: 606,630, 2006 [source] BLUE RUBBER BLEB NEVUS SYNDROME: TREATMENT OF MULTIPLE GASTROINTESTINAL HEMANGIOMAS WITH ARGON PLASMA COAGULATORDIGESTIVE ENDOSCOPY, Issue 1 2009Enders K.W. Ng Blue rubber bleb nevus syndrome is a rare clinical entity characterized by the formation of multiple blue or purplish rubbery cavernous hemangiomas on the skin and other epithelial surfaces. Involvement of the gastrointestinal tract is common and often presents with crippling anemia as a result of chronic occult blood loss. While surgical extirpation is an option for symptomatic hemangiomas in the intestine, endoscopic therapy is more appealing for lesions found in the stomach and colon. Here we report the successful use of argon plasma coagulation in the management of an adult with multiple hemangiomas in her colon and terminal ileum. [source] Diseases associated with pronounced eosinophilia: a study of 105 dogs in SwedenJOURNAL OF SMALL ANIMAL PRACTICE, Issue 6 2000I. Lilliehöök Records of 105 dogs with pronounced eosinophilia (>2.2 X l09 eosinophils/litre) were evaluated in a retrospective study to determine diseases associated with the abnormality in dogs in Sweden. Inflammatory disease in organs with large epithelial surfaces, such as the gut, lungs or skin, was found in 36 per cent of the dogs. A further one-quarter of the 105 cases were placed in the ,miscellaneous' category, which comprised various diseases found at low frequency. The most well defined diagnosis was pulmonary infiltrates with eosinophils in 12 per cent of the dogs. A further 11 per cent had parasitic disease caused by either sarcoptic mange or nasal mite. No atopic dog was found and rottweilers were over-represented in most disease groups. Pronounced eosinophilia, in many cases transient, seems to be associated with a variety of disorders in dogs. In the present study, rottweilers appeared to be more prone to a high eosinophil response than other breeds. [source] Type III IFNs: New layers of complexity in innate antiviral immunityBIOFACTORS, Issue 1 2009Nina Ank Abstract Cytokines are small secreted molecules, which mediate cross-talk between cells involved in the immune response. Interferons (IFN)s, constitute a class of cytokines with antiviral activities, and the type I IFNs have been ascribed particularly important roles in the innate antiviral response. Type III IFNs (also known as IFN-, or interleukin 28/29) represent a class of novel cytokines with biological activities similar to the type I IFNs, but seem to have a more specialized role in antiviral defense by exerting host-protection primarily at epithelial surfaces. In this review, we describe the current knowledge on the role of type III IFNs in antiviral defense. © 2009 International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc. [source] Bacterial exotoxins downregulate cathelicidin (hCAP-18/LL-37) and human ,-defensin 1 (HBD-1) expression in the intestinal epithelial cellsCELLULAR MICROBIOLOGY, Issue 12 2008Krishnendu Chakraborty Summary Cathelicidin (hCAP-18/LL-37) and ,-defensin 1 (HBD-1) are human antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) with high basal expression levels, which form the first line of host defence against infections over the epithelial surfaces. The antimicrobial functions owe to their direct microbicidal effects as well as the immunomodulatory role. Pathogenic microorganisms have developed multiple modalities including transcriptional repression to combat this arm of the host immune response. The precise mechanisms and the pathogen-derived molecules responsible for transcriptional downregulation remain unknown. Here, we have shown that enteric pathogens suppress LL-37 and HBD-1 expression in the intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) with Vibrio cholerae and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) exerting the most dramatic effects. Cholera toxin (CT) and labile toxin (LT), the major virulence proteins of V. cholerae and ETEC, respectively, are predominantly responsible for these effects, both in vitro and in vivo. CT transcriptionally downregulates the AMPs by activating several intracellular signalling pathways involving protein kinase A (PKA), ERK MAPKinase and Cox-2 downstream of cAMP accumulation and inducible cAMP early repressor (ICER) may mediate this role of CT, at least in part. This is the first report to show transcriptional repression of the AMPs through the activation of cellular signal transduction pathways by well-known virulence proteins of pathogenic microorganisms. [source] Contributions of hyphae and hypha-co-regulated genes to Candida albicans virulenceCELLULAR MICROBIOLOGY, Issue 11 2005Carol A. Kumamoto Summary The fascinating ability of Candida albicans to undergo dramatic changes in cellular morphology has invited speculation that this plasticity in form contributes to the virulence of the organism. Molecular genetic analyses have confirmed this hypothesis and further demonstrated that genes that govern cellular morphology are co-regulated with genes encoding conventional virulence factors such as proteases and adhesins. The transcriptional regulatory networks of C. albicans thus ensure that hyphae are produced concomitantly with virulence factors, resulting in cells that are adapted for invading the tissues of an immunocompromised host. Hyphae are able to exert mechanical force, aiding penetration of epithelial surfaces, and hyphae damage endothelial cells, aiding escape of C. albicans from the host bloodstream into deeper tissue. Hyphal morphogenesis is thus an integral part of the overall virulence strategy of C. albicans. [source] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||