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Dietary Protein (dietary + protein)
Terms modified by Dietary Protein Selected AbstractsTHE POTENTIAL OF TERMINALIA CATAPPA (TROPICAL ALMOND) SEED AS A SOURCE OF DIETARY PROTEINJOURNAL OF FOOD QUALITY, Issue 3 2004C.A. EZEOKONKWO ABSTRACT The nutritional value of Terminalia catappa seed as a source of dietary protein was investigated. The crude protein content of the seed was high (25.81%). The amino acid analysis showed a good pattern of the essential amino acids (EAA) (in g/16 g N) - leucine (7.32), isoleucine (3.58), valine (2.74), phenylalanine (3.04), tryptophan (0.9), methionine (1.48), lysine (3.39), threonine (2.94), histidine (2.96). Tyrosine (2.12) is the limiting amino acid. The protein quality of the seed was evaluated by in vivo bioassays using weanling male Sprague Dawley rats (50,60 g). The indices of protein quality measured include PER, BV, NPU and TD. There were positive correlation between PER and BV (r = 0.7105), PER and body weight gain (r = 0.9157), PER and nitrogen intake (r = 0.7428). The results showed that T. catappa seed protein has a good pattern of the EAA, is highly digestible, can support growth and positive nitrogen balance and thus has a high dietary protein quality. [source] Dietary Protein and Bone Health,JOURNAL OF BONE AND MINERAL RESEARCH, Issue 4 2004René Rizzoli First page of article [source] Effects of Fungal Phytase on Utilization of Dietary Protein and Minerals, and Dephosphorylation of Phytic Acid in the Alimentary Tract of Channel Catfish Ictalurus punctatus Fed an All-Plant-Protein DietJOURNAL OF THE WORLD AQUACULTURE SOCIETY, Issue 1 2002Weibing Yan A feeding trial was conducted to quantify the effects of phytase at levels of 0, 500, 1,000, 2,000, 4,000, and 8,000 units (U) per kg diet on utilization of dietary protein and minerals by fingerling (12 g) channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus fed an all-plant-protein diet composed of soybean meal, corn, and wheat middlings. The effects of phytase on dephosphorylation of phytic acid (phytate) in the alimentary tract of catfish also were determined. After 14 wk, mean weight gains (30.2,43.9 g/fish), feed conversion ratios (2.27,2.40 g feed consumed/g weight gain), protein efficiency ratios (1.47,1.61 g weight gaid/g protein consumed), and dietary protein retentions (23.8,26.7%) did not differ significantly (P > 0.05) among treatment groups. A digestibility trial conducted after the feeding trial showed no difference (P > 0.05) in mean digestibility of diet dry matter (49.0,58.3%) or crude protein (85.4-88.5%) among treatment groups. Concentrations of ash (46.7,48.6%), calcium (Ca, 17.9,18.5%), phosphorus (P, 9.1,9.5%), and manganese (Mn, 65.5,74.1 mg/kg) were significantly higher (P , 0.05) in bone of fish fed , 500 U/kg than in bone of fish fed 0 U/kg (ash, 43.5%; Ca, 16.4%; P, 8.4%; and Mn, 49.0 ma/kg), but concentrations of these minerals did not differ (P > 0.05) in bone of fish fed , 500 Uk/g. The magnesium (Mg) content of bone did not differ (P > 0.05) between fish fed 0 U/kg (0.29%) or 500 U/kg (0.34%), but was significantly lower in fish fed 0 U/kg than in fish fed , 1,000 U/kg (0.35,37%). Bone Mg levels did not differ (P > 0.05) among fish fed , 500 U/kg. The amount of zinc (Zn) in bone of fish fed 8,000 U/kg (153.3 mg/kg) was significantly higher than that in fish fed 0 U/kg (115.7 mg/kg) or 500 U/kg (130.3 mg/ kg), but did not differ from Zn levels in bone of fish fed 1,000,4,000 U/kg (134.5,135.8 mg/ kg). Dephosphorylation of phytate occurred primarily in the stomach within 2,8 h after diet ingestion, depending on the level of phytase supplementation. Initial levels of total phytate in the diet decreased 32,94% in stomach contents of fish fed l,000,8,000 U/kg within 2 h after feeding. Eight hours after feeding, stomach contents of fish fed , 1,000 U/kg contained less than 6% of initial total dietary phytate. Stomach contents of fish fed 500 U/kg retained 92% of initial total dietary phytate 2 h after feeding and 15% of total dietary phytate 8 h after feeding. Results of this study indicate that phytase supplementation at levels up to 8,000 U/kg diet did not increase weight gain or improve dietary protein utilization of channel catfish fed an all-plant-protein diet. Addition of phytase at a level of 1,000 U/kg diet was sufficient to significantly increase the Ca, P, Mg, and Mn content of bone, relative to fish fed an unsupplemented diet, and significantly decrease the quantity of total phytate in feces. A phytase level of 8,000 U/kg diet significantly increased the bioavailability of naturally occurring Zn in feed ingredients and increased the rate of phytate dephosphorylation in the stomach, compared with a diet containing no added phytase. Increased utilization of naturally occurring minerals in feed ingredients reduces the need for mineral supplements in diets and results in decreased elimination of minerals in feces. Thus, use of phytase in catfish feeds can be expected to provide both economic and environmental benefits. [source] Evaluation of Various Concentrations of Dietary Protein and Animal Protein for Pond-Raised Channel Catfish Ictalurus punctatus Fed to Satiation or at a Restricted RateJOURNAL OF THE WORLD AQUACULTURE SOCIETY, Issue 4 2000Edwin H. Robinson A factorial experiment was conducted to evaluate effect of dietary protein (28% or 32%), animal protein (0, 3, or 6%), and feeding rate (satiation or >90 kg/ha per d) on production characteristics, processing yield, and body composition of pond-raised channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus. Fingerling channel catfish (average weight: 55 g/fish) were stocked into 60, 0.04-ha ponds at a rate of 18,530 fish/ha. Five ponds were used for each dietary treatment. Fish were fed once daily to satiation or no more than 90 kg/ha per d for 147 d. Fish fed at a rate of >90 kg/ha per d consumed about 85% of the amount of feed consumed by fish fed to satiation. Dietary protein did not affect the total amount of feed fed, amount of feed consumed per fish, weight gain, feed conversion efficiency, or fillet protein. Animal protein had no effect on the total amount of feed fed, amount of feed consumed per fish, weight gain, or fillet protein and ash. Fish fed a diet containing 6% animal protein converted feed more efficiently than fish fed diets containing 0% and 3% animal protein. Fish fed to satiation daily consumed more feed, gained more weight, converted the feed less efficiently, and had a higher carcass yield, a higher level of visceral fat as compared to fish fed at a rate of >90 kg/ha per d. Feeding rate had no effect on fillet protein. Results from this study indicated that both a 28% and a 32% protein diet with or without animal protein provided the same growth rate of channel catfish raised in ponds from fingerlings to marketable size if feed is not restricted below a maximum rate of 90 kg/ha per d. Even though there were some interactions among the three factors evaluated, dietary protein levels of 28% to 32% and animal protein levels of 0% to 6% do not appear to markedly affect carcass yield and fillet proximate composition of pond-raised channel catfish. [source] Effects of Dietary Protein and Energy Levels on Growth and Body Composition of Juvenile Flounder Paralichthys olivaceusJOURNAL OF THE WORLD AQUACULTURE SOCIETY, Issue 3 2000Sang-Min Lee A feeding trial of three protein levels (30, 40 and 50%) and two energy levels (300 and 400 kcal/100-g diet) factorial design with three replications was carried out to investigate the proper dietary protein and energy levels for the growth of juvenile flounder Paralichthys olivaceus. Weight gain of fish tended to improve with increasing dietary protein level. Weight gain of fish fed either the 40% or 50% protein diet with 300 kcal/100-g diet was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than with 400 kcal/100-g diet. The best weight gain was obtained from fish fed the 50% protein diet with 300 kcal/100-g diet. Feed efficiency tended to improve with increasing dietary protein level. However, dietary energy level had no significant effect on feed efficiency of fish fed the 30% or 50% protein diet, but that of fish fed the 40% protein diet with 300 kcal/100-g diet was significantly higher than with 400 kcal/100-g diet. Protein retention tended to increase as dietary protein level increased and energy level decreased. Lipid content of fish fed the diet containing 400 kcal/100-g diet was significantly higher than that of fish fed the diet containing 300 kcal/100-g diet at all protein levels. Fatty acid compositions such as linoleic acid, EPA (20:5n-3) and DHA (22:6n-3) offish were directly affected by dietary lipid (squid liver oil and/or soybean oil) used for energy source. Based on the above results, it can be concluded that the proper dietary protein and energy levels for the growth of juvenile flounder are 50% and 300 kcal/100-g diet, respectively. [source] Increasing Dietary Protein Requirements in Elderly People for Optimal Muscle and Bone HealthJOURNAL OF AMERICAN GERIATRICS SOCIETY, Issue 6 2009Erin Gaffney-Stomberg MS Osteoporosis and sarcopenia are degenerative diseases frequently associated with aging. The loss of bone and muscle results in significant morbidity, so preventing or attenuating osteoporosis and sarcopenia is an important public health goal. Dietary protein is crucial for development of bone and muscle, and recent evidence suggests that increasing dietary protein above the current Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) may help maintain bone and muscle mass in older individuals. Several epidemiological and clinical studies point to a salutary effect of protein intakes above the current RDA (0.8 g/kg per day) for adults aged 19 and older. There is evidence that the anabolic response of muscle to dietary protein is attenuated in elderly people, and as a result, the amount of protein needed to achieve anabolism is greater. Dietary protein also increases circulating insulin-like growth factor, which has anabolic effects on muscle and bone. Furthermore, increasing dietary protein increases calcium absorption, which could be anabolic for bone. Available evidence supports a beneficial effect of short-term protein intakes up to 1.6 to 1.8 g/kg per day, although long-term studies are needed to show safety and efficacy. Future studies should employ functional measures indicative of protein adequacy, as well as measures of muscle protein synthesis and maintenance of muscle and bone tissue, to determine the optimal level of dietary protein. Given the available data, increasing the RDA for older individuals to 1.0 to 1.2 g/kg per day would maintain normal calcium metabolism and nitrogen balance without affecting renal function and may represent a compromise while longer-term protein supplement trials are pending. J Am Geriatr Soc 57:1073,1079, 2009. [source] Life-long protein malnutrition in the rat (Rattus norvegicus) results in altered patterns of craniofacial growth and smaller individualsJOURNAL OF ANATOMY, Issue 6 2006Shannon L. Lobe Abstract Dietary protein is a limiting factor in mammalian growth, significantly affecting the non-linear trajectories of skeletal growth. Young females may be particularly vulnerable to protein malnutrition if the restriction is not lifted before they become reproductive. With such early malnutrition, limited amino acids would be partitioned between two physiological objectives, successful reproduction vs. continued growth. Thus, the consequences of protein malnutrition could affect more than one generation. However, few studies have quantified these cross-generational effects. Our objective was to test for differences in skeletal growth in a second generation of malnourished rats compared with rats malnourished only post-weaning, the first generation and with controls. In this longitudinal study we modelled the growth of 22 craniofacial measurements with the logistic Gompertz equation, and tested for differences in the equation's parameters among the diet groups. The female offspring of post-weaning malnourished dams did not catch up in size to the first generation or to controls, although certain aspects of their craniofacial skeleton were less affected than others. The second generation's growth trajectories resembled the longer and slower growth of the first malnourished generation. There was a complex interaction between developmental processes and early nutritional environment, which affected variation of adult size. [source] Evaluation of Various Concentrations of Dietary Protein and Animal Protein for Pond-Raised Channel Catfish Ictalurus punctatus Fed to Satiation or at a Restricted RateJOURNAL OF THE WORLD AQUACULTURE SOCIETY, Issue 4 2000Edwin H. Robinson A factorial experiment was conducted to evaluate effect of dietary protein (28% or 32%), animal protein (0, 3, or 6%), and feeding rate (satiation or >90 kg/ha per d) on production characteristics, processing yield, and body composition of pond-raised channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus. Fingerling channel catfish (average weight: 55 g/fish) were stocked into 60, 0.04-ha ponds at a rate of 18,530 fish/ha. Five ponds were used for each dietary treatment. Fish were fed once daily to satiation or no more than 90 kg/ha per d for 147 d. Fish fed at a rate of >90 kg/ha per d consumed about 85% of the amount of feed consumed by fish fed to satiation. Dietary protein did not affect the total amount of feed fed, amount of feed consumed per fish, weight gain, feed conversion efficiency, or fillet protein. Animal protein had no effect on the total amount of feed fed, amount of feed consumed per fish, weight gain, or fillet protein and ash. Fish fed a diet containing 6% animal protein converted feed more efficiently than fish fed diets containing 0% and 3% animal protein. Fish fed to satiation daily consumed more feed, gained more weight, converted the feed less efficiently, and had a higher carcass yield, a higher level of visceral fat as compared to fish fed at a rate of >90 kg/ha per d. Feeding rate had no effect on fillet protein. Results from this study indicated that both a 28% and a 32% protein diet with or without animal protein provided the same growth rate of channel catfish raised in ponds from fingerlings to marketable size if feed is not restricted below a maximum rate of 90 kg/ha per d. Even though there were some interactions among the three factors evaluated, dietary protein levels of 28% to 32% and animal protein levels of 0% to 6% do not appear to markedly affect carcass yield and fillet proximate composition of pond-raised channel catfish. [source] Role of protein and carbohydrate sources on acute appetite responses in lean and overweight menNUTRITION & DIETETICS, Issue 2008Jane BOWEN Abstract Dietary protein induces greater satiety compared with carbohydrate in lean subjects, which may involve appetite-regulatory gut hormones. Little is known about the duration of effect, influence of protein and carbohydrate source and relevance to non-lean individuals. We compared the effect of various dietary proteins and carbohydrates on post-prandial appetite ratings, ad libitum energy intake (EI) and appetite hormones in lean and overweight men. Three randomised double-blinded cross-over studies examined appetite response (appetite ratings, ghrelin, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and cholecystokinin) to liquid preloads over three to four hours followed by a buffet meal to assess ad libitum EI. The 1-MJ preloads contained ,55 g of protein (whey, casein, soy and gluten), carbohydrate (glucose, lactose and fructose) or combined whey/fructose. EI was 10% higher following glucose preloads compared with protein preloads, observed at three hours but not four hours. Protein ingestion was followed by prolonged elevation of cholecystokinin and GLP-1 (two hours) and suppression of ghrelin (three to four hours) compared with glucose and independent of protein type. Replacing some whey with fructose attenuated the effect of protein on these hormones. Treatment effects on EI and appetite hormones were independent of bodyweight status, despite higher GLP-1 and lower ghrelin in overweight subjects. Protein-rich liquid preloads reduce EI over three hours in overweight men compared with glucose. These findings suggest a potential application for protein-rich drinks and/or foods to facilitate reduced EI. Future studies should explore additional dietary manipulations that may enhance this relationship, and confirm these effects within the context of energy-restricted dietary patterns. [source] Effects of dietary protein and lipid content on growth performance and biological indices of iridescent Shark (Pangasius hypophthalmus, Sauvage 1878) fryAQUACULTURE RESEARCH, Issue 4 2009Preeda Phumee Abstract Dietary protein and lipid effects on growth, body composition and indices of iridescent Shark Pangasius hypophthalmus (Sauvage 1878) fry were studied using a 4 × 2 factorial design. Triplicate groups of 10 fish per tank, with initial mean weights of 3.54,3.85 g were fed eight isocaloric diets comprising a combination of four protein levels (250, 300, 350 and 400 g kg,1 or 25%, 30%, 35% and 40%) and two lipid levels (60 and 120 g kg,1 or 6% and 12%) respectively. The fish were hand-fed to satiety twice daily for 8 weeks. Specific growth rate (SGR) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) showed significant effects (P<0.05) with variations in dietary protein and lipid. The highest SGR was observed in fish fed 40% protein/12% lipid diet but this value was not significantly (P>0.05) different from the fish fed 30% protein/12% lipid diet. The FCR was lowest for the 40/12 diet and differed significantly only with the 25/6, 25/12 and 30/6 treatments respectively. The hepatosomatic index (HSI) was significantly affected by the level of protein, but intraperitoneal fat (IPF) showed significant variation due to dietary lipid level. The HSI significantly (P<0.05) decreased when dietary protein increased from 25% to 30% but increased marginally thereafter. The IPF values increased with increased dietary lipid but decreased with increased dietary protein. Body protein was positively correlated with dietary protein content; conversely, body lipid content decreased with increase in dietary protein. The results of this experiment indicate the presence of a protein-sparing effect of lipid as fish fed 30% protein/12% lipid diet had growth and feed utilization comparable to those fed 40% protein/12% lipid diet. [source] DNA microarray analyses of the effects of dietary proteinsBIOFACTORS, Issue 1-4 2004Hisanori Kato Abstract Dietary proteins and amino acids serve not only as a building block for body components but also as regulators of a variety of body functions. A great many of the functions of ingested proteins, their peptide fragments, and amino acids have been characterized and some have been brought to practical application. Using a GeneChip DNA microarray system, we first compared the gene expression profiles among rats fed on 12% casein, 12% gluten, and protein-free diets for one week. The results revealed that a few hundred genes in the liver and muscle were up- or down-regulated by more than two-fold after feeding of the gluten or the protein-free diet. Interesting findings included the induction of genes for synthesis and catabolism of cholesterol by gluten feeding. In addition, we performed a study to examine the effect of the consumption of an enzymatically produced, hypoallergenic wheat flour on gene expression profiles in rats. The results confirmed the safety of this novel food product. [source] Methoprene modulates the effect of diet on male melon fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae, performance at mating aggregationsENTOMOLOGIA EXPERIMENTALIS ET APPLICATA, Issue 1 2010Ihsan ul Haq Abstract The effect of access to dietary protein (P) (hydrolyzed yeast) and/or treatment with a juvenile hormone analogue, methoprene (M), (in addition to sugar and water) on male aggregation (lekking) behaviour and mating success was studied in a laboratory strain of the melon fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett) (Diptera: Tephritidae). Six-day-old males were treated with (1) protein and methoprene (M+P+), (2) only protein (M,P+), or (3) only methoprene (M+P,), and compared with 14-day-old sexually mature untreated males (M,P,). The lekking behaviour of the four groups of males when competing for virgin sexually mature females (14,,16 days old) was observed in field cages. The following parameters were measured at male aggregations: lek initiation, lek participation, males calling, male,male interaction, female acceptance index, and mating success. For all these parameters, the M+P+ males significantly outperformed the other males. Moreover, for all parameters, there was a similar trend with M+P+ > M,P+ > M,P, > M+P,. More M+P+ males called and initiated and participated in lek activities than all other types of male, which resulted in higher mating success. They had also fewer unsuccessful copulation attempts than their counterparts. Whereas treatment with methoprene alone had a negative effect in young males with only access to sugar, access to dietary protein alone significantly improved young male sexual performance; moreover, the provision of methoprene together with protein had a synergistic effect, improving further male performance at leks. The results are of great relevance for enhancing the application of the sterile insect technique (SIT) against this pest species. The fact that access to dietary protein and treatment of sterile males with methoprene improves mating success means that SIT cost-effectiveness is increased, as more released males survive to sexual maturity. [source] Chemical characterization and protein quality evaluation of leaf protein concentrates from Glyricidia sepium and Leucaena leucocephalaINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, Issue 3 2004Johnson Oluwasola Agbede Summary Leaves and leaf protein concentrates (LPCs) from leaves of Glyricidia sepium and Leucaena leucocephala were analysed for chemical constituents. The protein quality of the LPC, with or without dl -methionine supplementation, was estimated by using sixty weanling albino rats. Glyricidia leaves contained higher crude protein and lower crude fibre than L. leucocephala leaves, while the ash values were identical. In the LPCs, crude protein showed a good balance of amino acids and nutritionally important minerals. The gross energy (GE) was only enhanced in the LPC of Glyricidia and, although tannin content was reduced in the LPCs, the phytate concentration increased. The rat bioassay did not suggest that, even when supplemented with dl -methionine, Glyricidia or Leucaena LPC would support rat growth when used as the sole sources of dietary protein. Based on the analytical and bioassay data, the nutritional potentials and limitations of these under-utilized protein resources are discussed. [source] Dental pathology and diet at Apollonia, a Greek colony on the Black SeaINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF OSTEOARCHAEOLOGY, Issue 3 2008A. Keenleyside Abstract Dental pathology has the potential to provide insight into the composition of the diet and to reveal dietary differences based on age, sex and social status. Human skeletal remains from the Greek colonial site of Apollonia (5th to 2nd centuries BC) on the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria were analysed for various forms of dental pathology in order to: assess the prevalence of dental disease in the population; compare the dental pathology data from Apollonia with dietary data derived from ancient literary texts and from previous stable isotopic analysis of the colonists' remains; explore variations in dental disease with respect to age and sex; and compare the prevalence of dental pathology in the Apollonians with that of other Greek populations. The composition of the diet, as indicated by the dental pathology data, is consistent with the stable isotopic evidence from Apollonia and with the ancient literary texts, both of which indicate the consumption of a relatively soft, high carbohydrate diet. The higher frequency of dental caries, abscesses, calculus, and antemortem tooth loss in older adults compared with younger ones reflects the age-progressive nature of these conditions. The lack of significant sex differences in caries, abscesses, calculus and tooth loss corresponds with the stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic data derived from bone collagen, which indicate no significant sex differences in the consumption of dietary protein. In contrast, these findings conflict with the ancient literary texts, which refer to distinct dietary differences between males and females, and with the stable carbon isotopic values derived from bone carbonate, which indicate sex differences with respect to the overall diet. Despite the lack of marked sex differences in dental pathology, overall trends point to subtle dietary differences between males and females. A greater degree of tooth wear in males also hints at possible sex differences in the use of the teeth as tools. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Increasing Dietary Protein Requirements in Elderly People for Optimal Muscle and Bone HealthJOURNAL OF AMERICAN GERIATRICS SOCIETY, Issue 6 2009Erin Gaffney-Stomberg MS Osteoporosis and sarcopenia are degenerative diseases frequently associated with aging. The loss of bone and muscle results in significant morbidity, so preventing or attenuating osteoporosis and sarcopenia is an important public health goal. Dietary protein is crucial for development of bone and muscle, and recent evidence suggests that increasing dietary protein above the current Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) may help maintain bone and muscle mass in older individuals. Several epidemiological and clinical studies point to a salutary effect of protein intakes above the current RDA (0.8 g/kg per day) for adults aged 19 and older. There is evidence that the anabolic response of muscle to dietary protein is attenuated in elderly people, and as a result, the amount of protein needed to achieve anabolism is greater. Dietary protein also increases circulating insulin-like growth factor, which has anabolic effects on muscle and bone. Furthermore, increasing dietary protein increases calcium absorption, which could be anabolic for bone. Available evidence supports a beneficial effect of short-term protein intakes up to 1.6 to 1.8 g/kg per day, although long-term studies are needed to show safety and efficacy. Future studies should employ functional measures indicative of protein adequacy, as well as measures of muscle protein synthesis and maintenance of muscle and bone tissue, to determine the optimal level of dietary protein. Given the available data, increasing the RDA for older individuals to 1.0 to 1.2 g/kg per day would maintain normal calcium metabolism and nitrogen balance without affecting renal function and may represent a compromise while longer-term protein supplement trials are pending. J Am Geriatr Soc 57:1073,1079, 2009. [source] Effect of protein : energy ratio in milk replacers on growth performance of goat kidsJOURNAL OF ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY AND NUTRITION, Issue 5-6 2002K-H. YEOM Two separate experiments were carried out to establish the effects of the protein : energy ratio in milk replacers on growth performance, plasma lipid concentrations and fatty acid composition in adipose tissue of male goat kids. In the first experiment there were 211 3-day- old goat kids and in the second experiment there were 121 kids aged 3,7 days. The animals were fed ad libitum for a period of 4 weeks on milk replacers containing either 11.5 or 9.5 g crude protein/MJ metabolizable energy. In essence, protein was exchanged with fat on a weight basis. Milk concentrations were increased from 160 to 190 g/l in experiment 1, from 150 to 180 g/l in experiment 2. There were significant increases in body weight and feed intake when the milk replacer with high protein : energy ratio was fed. Group mean average daily weight gain was 168 and 203 g for the groups with low and high dietary protein : energy ratio in experiment 1; for experiment 2 the values were 139 and 160 g. Average dry matter intake was 18 and 14% higher for the diet with high protein : energy ratio in experiments 1 and 2, respectively. There was no change in either feed conversion (feed : gain ratio) or energy conversion (weight gain : energy intake ratio). There were no consistent diet effects on plasma lipid concentrations. Dietary fatty acid composition was reflected by that of adipose tissue. The milk replacer with high protein : energy ratio produced a small increase in the contents of myristic and palmitic acid in adipose tissue. [source] Dietary arginine requirement of fingerling Indian major carp, Labeo rohita (Hamilton) based on growth, nutrient retention efficiencies, RNA/DNA ratio and body compositionJOURNAL OF APPLIED ICHTHYOLOGY, Issue 6 2009S. F. Abidi Summary To quantify the optimum dietary arginine requirement of fingerling Indian major carp, Labeo rohita (4.10 ± 0.04 cm; 0.62 ± 0.02 g), an 8-week growth trial was conducted in eighteen 70-L indoor circular aqua-coloured troughs provided with a flow-through system at 28 ± 1°C. Isonitrogenous (40 g 100 g,1 crude protein) and isocaloric (4.28 kcal g,1 gross energy) amino acid test diets containing casein and gelatin as intact protein sources with graded levels of arginine (0.5, 0.75, 1.0, 1.25, 1.50 and 1.75 g 100 g,1 dry diet) were fed to triplicate groups of fish to apparent satiation at 07:00, 12:00 and 17:30 hours. Growth performance of fish fed the above diets was evaluated on the basis of absolute weight gain (AWG), specific growth rate (SGR), feed conversion ratio (FCR), protein efficiency ratio (PER), protein retention efficiency (PRE) and energy retention efficiency (ERE). Maximum AWG (2.61), SGR (2.80), best FCR (1.35), highest PER (1.85), PRE (37%) and ERE (76%) were recorded at 1.25 g 100 g,1 dietary arginine. Maximum body protein (18.88 g 100 g,1) and RNA/DNA ratio (5.20) were also obtained in a 1.25 g 100 g,1 arginine dry diet. Except for the reduced growth performance in fish fed arginine-deficient diets, no other deficiency signs were apparent. Based on the broken-line and second-degree polynomial regression analysis of the AWG, SGR, FCR, PER, PRE and ERE data, the optimum arginine requirement for fingerling Labeo rohita was found to be in the range of 1.22,1.39 g 100 g,1 of the dry diet, corresponding to 3.05,3.47 g 100 g,1 of dietary protein. [source] Growth performance and body composition of sub-yearling Persian sturgeon, (Acipenser persicus, Borodin, 1897), fed different dietary protein and lipid levelsJOURNAL OF APPLIED ICHTHYOLOGY, Issue 3 2007M. Mohseni Summary In order to evaluate the protein and energy requirement of Persian sturgeon (Acipenser persicus) sub-yearlings, eight experimental diets containing two protein levels (40% and 45%) and four lipid levels (10%, 15%, 20% and 25%) were tested. Sturgeons (W0 = 136.8 g) were fed the experimental diets to satiation four times daily for 150 days, resulting in a final mean weight of 375.8 g. Growth was significantly affected by lipid content of the diets. At 40% protein level, weight gain and specific growth rate (% per day) were significantly improved (P < 0.05) by increasing the dietary lipid (energy) content. Protein efficiency ratio (PER) was significantly affected by different dietary treatments for each dietary protein level tested, reaching a mean value of 3.58 in fish fed high lipid diets and a PER of 2.77 in low lipid diets. Results obtained in the present study suggest that the optimum dietary protein content for Persian sturgeon is 40%, with an estimated optimum protein-to-energy ratio of 18,20 mg kJ,1. [source] Growth and product quality of European eel (Anguilla anguilla) as affected by dietary protein and lipid sourcesJOURNAL OF APPLIED ICHTHYOLOGY, Issue 2 2003U. Luzzana Summary A 12-week feeding trial was undertaken to evaluate the effects of partial replacement of marine raw materials in the diet with soybean meal and beef tallow on growth and product quality of European eel (Anguilla anguilla). Based on growth, feed efficiency and chemical composition, soybean meal was found to be an unsuitable ingredient for eel diets as a substitute for fishmeal (25% on a protein basis), probably because of the low digestibility of its carbohydrate content. However, beef tallow can be used to replace 50% of fish oil without reduction in growth, provided that digestible carbohydrates are present in the diet. No major effects of protein and lipid sources in the diet were found on fillet chemical composition. Sensory analysis revealed no significant differences between fish fed the control and the experimental diets, with the exception of salty taste which was significantly higher in fish fed combined soybean meal and beef tallow compared with fish fed the control diet. [source] Effects of amino acid supplementation on the nutritive quality of fermented linseed meal protein in the diets for rohu, Labeo rohita, fingerlingsJOURNAL OF APPLIED ICHTHYOLOGY, Issue 5 2001N. Mukhopadhyay A feeding trial was conducted for 8 weeks to examine the effects of partial substitution of fish meal (FM) protein (crude protein content: 58.5%) with linseed meal protein with and without supplemental amino acids in diets for rohu Labeo rohita (Hamilton), fingerlings (mean weight: 1.50 ± 0.3 g). Prior to incorporation into the diets, linseed meal was fermented with lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus acidophilus) to reduce/eliminate the antinutritional tannin and phytic acid factors. Twelve experimental diets (diets D1,D12) were formulated to replace the FM protein from a reference diet (RD) with linseed meal protein at different levels (four sets of diets, of which each set of three diets contained 25%, 50% and 75% replacement of FM protein by linseed meal protein, respectively). Diets D1,D3 were not supplemented with any amino acid. Lysine was supplemented in diets D4,D6. Diets D7,D9 were supplemented with methionine + cystine (together), and diets D10,D12 contained lysine and methionine + cystine (together). Lysine and methionine + cystine (together) were added to the diets at 5.7% and 3.1% of dietary protein, respectively. The groups of fish fed diets without amino acid supplementation had significantly lower percentages of weight gain, specific growth rate and high feed : gain ratio than the fish groups fed other experimental diets. The addition of lysine and methionine + cystine to the diet in which 50% of the FM protein was replaced by linseed meal protein (diet D11) significantly improved fish performance. The results of the present study suggest that rohu fingerlings can effectively utilize the supplemented amino acids and that linseed meal protein can replace up to 50% of the FM protein in rohu diets if the linseed meal is properly processed (fermented) and supplemented with the lacking amino acids. [source] Growth and survival of river catfish Mystus nemurus (Cuvier & Valenciennes) larvae fed isocaloric diets with different protein levels during weaningJOURNAL OF APPLIED ICHTHYOLOGY, Issue 3 2000R. V. Eguia Summary The growth of river catfish Mystus nemurus (Cuvier & Valenciennes) larvae fed four isocaloric diets (4200 kcal kg,1) with different protein levels during weaning was determined. Diets containing 45, 50, 55, and 60% protein were formulated by linear programming using amino acid profiles based on that of 2-day-old river catfish larvae. Artificial diets were fed to the larvae beginning at day 5 after being initially fed Artemia nauplii for 4 days. The larvae thrived solely on artificial diets from day 8 to day 16. On the other hand, the control larvae were fed Artemia nauplii from day 1 to day 16. Results of the feeding trial showed that growth and survival of M. nemurus larvae given the diet containing 60% protein were high and comparable to those of the larvae given only live food (control). Larvae fed the 55% protein diet had significantly lower growth and survival than the larvae on the control and 60% diets but significantly higher growth and survival rates than did larvae fed with 45 and 50% protein diets. Carcass moisture and total lipids after 16 days of feeding did not differ significantly (P > 0.05), but body protein increased with increasing dietary protein. Body protein of the control larvae was similar to that of larvae given the 60% protein diet. [source] UTILIZATION OF APRICOT KERNEL FLOUR AS FAT REPLACER IN COOKIESJOURNAL OF FOOD PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION, Issue 1 2010I.T. SEKER ABSTRACT In this study, shortening content in a wire-cut cookie formulation was reduced at 10, 20, 30 and 40% and replaced with apricot kernel flour (AKF). The effects of increased concentrations of AKF on the properties of cookies were investigated. Protein, fat and total dietary fiber (TDF) contents of the apricot kernels were determined as 21.8%, 40.2% and 35.8%, respectively, which confirmed that the apricot kernel is an important source of dietary protein as well as oil and fiber. Addition of AKF decreased the spread ratio and increased the hardness of the cookies (P , 0.01). However, sensory evaluation revealed that the cookies containing AKF were acceptable to the panelists at all concentrations (P , 0.01). TDF contents of the cookies increased significantly (P , 0.01) as the AKF supplemention increased. AKF is a suitable replacer of shortening in cookies at 10 and 20%. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS Province of Malatya (Turkey) is one of the major apricot and apricot kernel producing regions in the world. Apricot kernels are generally exported and the importing countries use it especially in the production of oil, benzaldehyde, cosmetics, active carbon and aroma. Apricot kernels are also utilized in retail bakeries and consumed as appetizers. Cookies are one of the most popular bakery products and textural characteristics of cookies are highly influenced by their fat content. Health specialists recommend that daily fat consumption should not exceed 30% of the total calories in a diet. In this study, the preparation of apricot kernel flour (AKF), which does not require much processing and has the advantage of including other nutrients, was achieved. With the production of high-fiber and low-fat cookies by the usage of AKF, an exciting new potential as a food ingredient, especially in cereal products, is offered. [source] THE POTENTIAL OF TERMINALIA CATAPPA (TROPICAL ALMOND) SEED AS A SOURCE OF DIETARY PROTEINJOURNAL OF FOOD QUALITY, Issue 3 2004C.A. EZEOKONKWO ABSTRACT The nutritional value of Terminalia catappa seed as a source of dietary protein was investigated. The crude protein content of the seed was high (25.81%). The amino acid analysis showed a good pattern of the essential amino acids (EAA) (in g/16 g N) - leucine (7.32), isoleucine (3.58), valine (2.74), phenylalanine (3.04), tryptophan (0.9), methionine (1.48), lysine (3.39), threonine (2.94), histidine (2.96). Tyrosine (2.12) is the limiting amino acid. The protein quality of the seed was evaluated by in vivo bioassays using weanling male Sprague Dawley rats (50,60 g). The indices of protein quality measured include PER, BV, NPU and TD. There were positive correlation between PER and BV (r = 0.7105), PER and body weight gain (r = 0.9157), PER and nitrogen intake (r = 0.7428). The results showed that T. catappa seed protein has a good pattern of the EAA, is highly digestible, can support growth and positive nitrogen balance and thus has a high dietary protein quality. [source] Optimum Dietary Protein Levels and Protein to Energy Ratios in Olive Flounder Paralichthys olivaceusJOURNAL OF THE WORLD AQUACULTURE SOCIETY, Issue 2 2005Kang-Woong Kim The olive flounder Paralichthys olivaceus is one of the most commercially important fish species in Korea. In order to formulate better diets for cultured olive flounder we evaluated the optimum dietary protein requirements for larval, fry and juvenile olive flounder, and the optimum dietary protein to energy ratio for juvenile olive flounder. Results of four separate experiments suggested that the optimum dietary protein requirements were 60% in larvae (0.3 g), 46.4,51.2% in 4.1-g juvenile, and 40,44% in 13.3 g growing olive flounder. The optimum dietary protein to energy ratio based on weight gain, feed efficiency, specific growth rate, and protein retention efficiency was 27,28 mg protein/kJ 2 energy (35 and 45% CP for diets containing 12.5 and 16.7 kJ energylg diet, respectively). [source] Effect of Dietary Protein Concentration and Stocking Density on Production Characteristics of Pond-Raised Channel Catfish Ictalurus punctatusJOURNAL OF THE WORLD AQUACULTURE SOCIETY, Issue 2 2003Menghe H. Li Diets containing 28% and 32% crude protein were compared for pond-raised channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus stocked at densities of 14,820, 29,640, or 44,460 fish/ha. Fingerling channel catfish with average initial weight of 48.5 g/fish were stocked into 30 0.04-ha ponds. Five ponds were randomly allotted for each dietary protein ± stocking density combination. Fish were fed once daily to satiation for two growing seasons. There were no interactions between dietary protein concentration and stocking density for any variables. Dietary protein concentrations (28% or 32%) did not affect net production, feed consumption and weight gain per fish, feed conversion ratio, survival, processing yields, fillet moisture, protein and ash concentrations, or pond water ammonia and nitrite concentrations. Fish fed the 32% protein diet had slightly but significantly lower levels of visceral and fillet fat than fish fed the 28% protein diet. As stocking density increased, net production increased, while weight gain of individual fish, feed efficiency, and survival decreased. Stocking densities did not affect processing yield and fillet composition of the fish. Although highly variable among different ponds and weekly measurements, ponds stocked at the highest density exhibited higher average levels of total ammonia-nitrogen (TAN) and nitrite-nitrogen (NO2 -N) than ponds stocked at lower densities. However, stocking density had no significant effect on un-ionized ammonia-nitrogen (NH3 -N) concentrations, calculated based on water temperature, pH, and TAN. By comparing to the reported critical concentration, a threshold below which is considered not harmful to the fish, these potentially toxic nitrogenous compounds in the pond water were generally in the range acceptable for channel catfish. It appears that a 28% protein diet can provide equivalent net production, feed efficiency, and processing yields as a 32% protein diet for channel catfish raised in ponds from advanced fingerlings to marketable size at densities varying from 14,820 to 44,460 fish/ha under single-batch cropping systems. Optimum dietary protein concentration for pond-raised channel catfish does not appear to be affected by stocking density. [source] Effects of Fungal Phytase on Utilization of Dietary Protein and Minerals, and Dephosphorylation of Phytic Acid in the Alimentary Tract of Channel Catfish Ictalurus punctatus Fed an All-Plant-Protein DietJOURNAL OF THE WORLD AQUACULTURE SOCIETY, Issue 1 2002Weibing Yan A feeding trial was conducted to quantify the effects of phytase at levels of 0, 500, 1,000, 2,000, 4,000, and 8,000 units (U) per kg diet on utilization of dietary protein and minerals by fingerling (12 g) channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus fed an all-plant-protein diet composed of soybean meal, corn, and wheat middlings. The effects of phytase on dephosphorylation of phytic acid (phytate) in the alimentary tract of catfish also were determined. After 14 wk, mean weight gains (30.2,43.9 g/fish), feed conversion ratios (2.27,2.40 g feed consumed/g weight gain), protein efficiency ratios (1.47,1.61 g weight gaid/g protein consumed), and dietary protein retentions (23.8,26.7%) did not differ significantly (P > 0.05) among treatment groups. A digestibility trial conducted after the feeding trial showed no difference (P > 0.05) in mean digestibility of diet dry matter (49.0,58.3%) or crude protein (85.4-88.5%) among treatment groups. Concentrations of ash (46.7,48.6%), calcium (Ca, 17.9,18.5%), phosphorus (P, 9.1,9.5%), and manganese (Mn, 65.5,74.1 mg/kg) were significantly higher (P , 0.05) in bone of fish fed , 500 U/kg than in bone of fish fed 0 U/kg (ash, 43.5%; Ca, 16.4%; P, 8.4%; and Mn, 49.0 ma/kg), but concentrations of these minerals did not differ (P > 0.05) in bone of fish fed , 500 Uk/g. The magnesium (Mg) content of bone did not differ (P > 0.05) between fish fed 0 U/kg (0.29%) or 500 U/kg (0.34%), but was significantly lower in fish fed 0 U/kg than in fish fed , 1,000 U/kg (0.35,37%). Bone Mg levels did not differ (P > 0.05) among fish fed , 500 U/kg. The amount of zinc (Zn) in bone of fish fed 8,000 U/kg (153.3 mg/kg) was significantly higher than that in fish fed 0 U/kg (115.7 mg/kg) or 500 U/kg (130.3 mg/ kg), but did not differ from Zn levels in bone of fish fed 1,000,4,000 U/kg (134.5,135.8 mg/ kg). Dephosphorylation of phytate occurred primarily in the stomach within 2,8 h after diet ingestion, depending on the level of phytase supplementation. Initial levels of total phytate in the diet decreased 32,94% in stomach contents of fish fed l,000,8,000 U/kg within 2 h after feeding. Eight hours after feeding, stomach contents of fish fed , 1,000 U/kg contained less than 6% of initial total dietary phytate. Stomach contents of fish fed 500 U/kg retained 92% of initial total dietary phytate 2 h after feeding and 15% of total dietary phytate 8 h after feeding. Results of this study indicate that phytase supplementation at levels up to 8,000 U/kg diet did not increase weight gain or improve dietary protein utilization of channel catfish fed an all-plant-protein diet. Addition of phytase at a level of 1,000 U/kg diet was sufficient to significantly increase the Ca, P, Mg, and Mn content of bone, relative to fish fed an unsupplemented diet, and significantly decrease the quantity of total phytate in feces. A phytase level of 8,000 U/kg diet significantly increased the bioavailability of naturally occurring Zn in feed ingredients and increased the rate of phytate dephosphorylation in the stomach, compared with a diet containing no added phytase. Increased utilization of naturally occurring minerals in feed ingredients reduces the need for mineral supplements in diets and results in decreased elimination of minerals in feces. Thus, use of phytase in catfish feeds can be expected to provide both economic and environmental benefits. [source] Evaluation of Various Concentrations of Dietary Protein and Animal Protein for Pond-Raised Channel Catfish Ictalurus punctatus Fed to Satiation or at a Restricted RateJOURNAL OF THE WORLD AQUACULTURE SOCIETY, Issue 4 2000Edwin H. Robinson A factorial experiment was conducted to evaluate effect of dietary protein (28% or 32%), animal protein (0, 3, or 6%), and feeding rate (satiation or >90 kg/ha per d) on production characteristics, processing yield, and body composition of pond-raised channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus. Fingerling channel catfish (average weight: 55 g/fish) were stocked into 60, 0.04-ha ponds at a rate of 18,530 fish/ha. Five ponds were used for each dietary treatment. Fish were fed once daily to satiation or no more than 90 kg/ha per d for 147 d. Fish fed at a rate of >90 kg/ha per d consumed about 85% of the amount of feed consumed by fish fed to satiation. Dietary protein did not affect the total amount of feed fed, amount of feed consumed per fish, weight gain, feed conversion efficiency, or fillet protein. Animal protein had no effect on the total amount of feed fed, amount of feed consumed per fish, weight gain, or fillet protein and ash. Fish fed a diet containing 6% animal protein converted feed more efficiently than fish fed diets containing 0% and 3% animal protein. Fish fed to satiation daily consumed more feed, gained more weight, converted the feed less efficiently, and had a higher carcass yield, a higher level of visceral fat as compared to fish fed at a rate of >90 kg/ha per d. Feeding rate had no effect on fillet protein. Results from this study indicated that both a 28% and a 32% protein diet with or without animal protein provided the same growth rate of channel catfish raised in ponds from fingerlings to marketable size if feed is not restricted below a maximum rate of 90 kg/ha per d. Even though there were some interactions among the three factors evaluated, dietary protein levels of 28% to 32% and animal protein levels of 0% to 6% do not appear to markedly affect carcass yield and fillet proximate composition of pond-raised channel catfish. [source] Effects of Dietary Protein and Energy Levels on Growth and Body Composition of Juvenile Flounder Paralichthys olivaceusJOURNAL OF THE WORLD AQUACULTURE SOCIETY, Issue 3 2000Sang-Min Lee A feeding trial of three protein levels (30, 40 and 50%) and two energy levels (300 and 400 kcal/100-g diet) factorial design with three replications was carried out to investigate the proper dietary protein and energy levels for the growth of juvenile flounder Paralichthys olivaceus. Weight gain of fish tended to improve with increasing dietary protein level. Weight gain of fish fed either the 40% or 50% protein diet with 300 kcal/100-g diet was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than with 400 kcal/100-g diet. The best weight gain was obtained from fish fed the 50% protein diet with 300 kcal/100-g diet. Feed efficiency tended to improve with increasing dietary protein level. However, dietary energy level had no significant effect on feed efficiency of fish fed the 30% or 50% protein diet, but that of fish fed the 40% protein diet with 300 kcal/100-g diet was significantly higher than with 400 kcal/100-g diet. Protein retention tended to increase as dietary protein level increased and energy level decreased. Lipid content of fish fed the diet containing 400 kcal/100-g diet was significantly higher than that of fish fed the diet containing 300 kcal/100-g diet at all protein levels. Fatty acid compositions such as linoleic acid, EPA (20:5n-3) and DHA (22:6n-3) offish were directly affected by dietary lipid (squid liver oil and/or soybean oil) used for energy source. Based on the above results, it can be concluded that the proper dietary protein and energy levels for the growth of juvenile flounder are 50% and 300 kcal/100-g diet, respectively. [source] Domino liver transplantation in maple syrup urine disease,LIVER TRANSPLANTATION, Issue 5 2006Ajai Khanna Liver transplantation has been reported in a few cases of maple syrup urine disease (MSUD), but is controversial. Many patients with approved indications for liver transplantation die before grafts are available. A 25-yr-old man with MSUD underwent liver transplantation, and his liver was used as a domino graft for a 53-yr-old man with hepatocellular carcinoma who had low priority on the liver transplant waiting list and was unlikely to survive until routine organ procurement. Both transplants were performed as "piggy back" procedures, reconstructing the domino graft with caval segments from the cadaveric donor. Neither required veno-venous bypass. Whole body leucine oxidation was estimated by 13CO2 in breath after oral boluses of L -[1- 13C]-leucine, before and after transplantation in both patients and a control subject. The surgical outcome was successful. The patient with MSUD had marked decreases in plasma branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) and alloisoleucine (from 255 ± 66 to 16 ± 7 ,mol/L), despite advancement of dietary protein from 6 to >40 gm/day. The domino recipient maintained near-normal levels of plasma amino acids with no detectable alloisoleucine on unrestricted diet. Leucine oxidation increased in the patient with MSUD (from 2.2 to 5.6% recovered in 4 hours) and decreased in the recipient (from 9.7 to 6.2%). Neither patient demonstrated any apparent symptoms of MSUD over more than 7 months. In conclusion, liver transplantation substantially corrects whole body BCAA metabolism in MSUD and greatly attenuates the disease. Livers from patients with MSUD may be considered as domino grafts for patients who might otherwise not survive until transplantation. Liver Transpl 12:876,882, 2006. © 2006 AASLD. [source] Terrestrial carnivores and human food production: impact and managementMAMMAL REVIEW, Issue 2-3 2008PHILIP J. BAKER ABSTRACT 1The production of food for human consumption has led to an historical and global conflict with terrestrial carnivores, which in turn has resulted in the extinction or extirpation of many species, although some have benefited. At present, carnivores affect food production by: (i) killing human producers; killing and/or eating (ii) fish/shellfish; (iii) game/wildfowl; (iv) livestock; (v) damaging crops; (vi) transmitting diseases; and (vii) through trophic interactions with other species in agricultural landscapes. Conversely, carnivores can themselves be a source of dietary protein (bushmeat). 2Globally, the major areas of conflict are predation on livestock and the transmission of rabies. At a broad scale, livestock predation is a customary problem where predators are present and has been quantified for a broad range of carnivore species, although the veracity of these estimates is equivocal. Typically, but not always, losses are small relative to the numbers held, but can be a significant proportion of total livestock mortality. Losses experienced by producers are often highly variable, indicating that factors such as husbandry practices and predator behaviour may significantly affect the relative vulnerability of properties in the wider landscape. Within livestock herds, juvenile animals are particularly vulnerable. 3Proactive and reactive culling are widely practised as a means to limit predation on livestock and game. Historic changes in species' distributions and abundance illustrate that culling programmes can be very effective at reducing predator density, although such substantive impacts are generally considered undesirable for native predators. However, despite their prevalence, the effectiveness, efficiency and the benefit:cost ratio of culling programmes have been poorly studied. 4A wide range of non-lethal methods to limit predation has been studied. However, many of these have their practical limitations and are unlikely to be widely applicable. 5Lethal approaches are likely to dominate the management of terrestrial carnivores for the foreseeable future, but animal welfare considerations are increasingly likely to influence management strategies. The adoption of non-lethal approaches will depend upon proof of their effectiveness and the willingness of stakeholders to implement them, and, in some cases, appropriate licensing and legislation. 6Overall, it is apparent that we still understand relatively little about the importance of factors affecting predation on livestock and how to manage this conflict effectively. We consider the following avenues of research to be essential: (i) quantified assessments of the loss of viable livestock; (ii) landscape-level studies of contiguous properties to quantify losses associated with variables such as different husbandry practices; (iii) replicated experimental manipulations to identify the relative benefit of particular management practices, incorporating (iv) techniques to identify individual predators killing stock; and (v) economic analyses of different management approaches to quantify optimal production strategies. [source] | |||||||||||||||||||