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Central Concept (central + concept)
Selected AbstractsDIRECTLY INTERVENE OR CALL THE AUTHORITIES?CRIMINOLOGY, Issue 1 2007A STUDY OF FORMS OF NEIGHBORHOOD SOCIAL CONTROL WITHIN A SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION FRAMEWORK Informal social control is a central concept in the contemporary social disorganization literature, and much attention has been directed at examining community characteristics related to variation in the quantity of informal social control across communities. However, considerably less attention has been paid to variation in forms of informal social control. This study examines the extent to which neighborhood characteristics are related to residents'likelihood of using two different forms of informal social control: direct informal social control (i.e., through direct intervention) and indirect informal social control (i.e., through mobilizing formal authorities). Data for this study are based on surveys of residents in 66 neighborhoods. The analysis uses hierarchical modeling to examine whether neighborhood characteristics central to contemporary social disorganization theory have similar effects on these two forms of neighborhood social control. Findings indicate that social ties increase the likelihood of direct informal social control but not indirect informal social control, whereas social cohesion and trust decreases indirect informal social control but does not have a significant effect on direct informal social control. Faith in the police is not found to affect either form of informal social control. These findings are discussed in terms of current issues in contemporary social disorganization theory. [source] Scale dependence of effective specialization: its analysis and implications for estimates of global insect species richnessDIVERSITY AND DISTRIBUTIONS, Issue 1 2007Jon C. Gering ABSTRACT Estimates of global insect species richness are sometimes based on effective specialization, a calculation used to estimate the number of insect species that is restricted to a particular tree species. Yet it is not clear how effective specialization is influenced by spatial scale or characteristics of the insect community itself (e.g. species richness). We investigated scale dependence and community predictors of effective specialization using 15,907 beetles (583 species) collected by insecticide fogging from the crowns of 96 trees (including 32 Quercus trees) located in Ohio and Indiana. Trees were distributed across 24 forest stands (,1 ha) nested within six sites (,10,100 km2) and two ecoregions (> 1000 km2). Using paired-sample randomization tests, we found that effective specialization (fk) exhibited negative scale-dependence in early (May,June 2000) and late (August,September 2000) sampling periods. Our average effective specialization (F) values , those that are comparable to Erwin's (1982) estimates , ranged from 19% to 97%, and increased as spatial scale decreased. We also found that beetle species richness and the number of shared beetle species across host trees were significant and consistent negative predictors of F. This shows that increases in spatial scale, species richness, and the number of trees (and/or tree species) all coincide with decreases in effective specialization. Collectively, our results indicate that estimates of global insect species richness based on effective specialization at a single spatial scale are overestimating the magnitude of global insect species richness. We propose that scale dependence should be promoted to a central concept in the research program on global estimates of species richness. [source] The notion of ,phonology' in dyslexia research: cognitivism,and beyondDYSLEXIA, Issue 3 2007Per Henning Uppstad Abstract Phonology has been a central concept in the scientific study of dyslexia over the past decades. Despite its central position, however, it is a concept with no precise definition or status. The present article investigates the notion of ,phonology' in the tradition of cognitive psychology. An attempt is made to characterize the basic assumptions of the phonological approach to dyslexia and to evaluate these assumptions on the basis of commonly accepted standards of empirical science. First, the core assumptions of phonological awareness are outlined and discussed. Second, the position of Paula Tallal is presented and discussed in order to shed light on an attempt to stretch the cognitive-psychological notion of ,phonology' towards auditory and perceptual aspects. Both the core assumptions and Tallal's position are rejected as unfortunate, albeit for different reasons. Third, the outcome of this discussion is a search for what is referred to as a ,vulnerable theory' within this field. The present article claims that phonological descriptions must be based on observable linguistic behaviour, so that hypotheses can be falsified by data. Consequently, definitions of ,dyslexia' must be based on symptoms; causal aspects should not be included. In fact, we claim that causal aspects, such as ,phonological deficit', both exclude other causal hypotheses and lead to circular reasoning. If we are to use terms such as ,phonology' and ,phoneme' in dyslexia research, we must have more precise operationalizations of them. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Of coiled oysters and big brains: how to rescue the terminology of heterochrony, now gone astrayEVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT, Issue 5 2000Stephen Jay Gould SUMMARY During the past decade, the terminology of heterochrony, heretofore consistent and workable, has become internally illogical and incoherent as the unfortunate result of an extension of terms, properly devised to describe shifts in developmental timing of shapes and features, to the rates and timings that cause these shifts. All the resulting, and extensive, confusion in the literature arises as a pure consequence of this error in logic and nomenclature, and not at all from disagreement about the important empirical questions described by this central concept and phenomenon in the integration of evolution and development. In particular, the claim that the same feature in human evolution (the paedomorphic shape of the human cranium) expresses either neoteny or the apparently opposite phenomenon of hypermorphosis only records the terminological error, and not any factual disagreement,for this neotenic feature has probably arisen by a prolongation of juvenile growth patterns inappropriately designated as "hypermorphosis of rate." I show that a prominent and unchallenged case of neoteny in fossil oysters arises by exactly the same evolutionary mode. When we restore the terminology of heterochrony by the "paedomorphic" intellectual event of dropping these inadaptive terminal accretions (the illogical extension of shape categories to describe rates), then the concept of heterochrony will again make proper distinctions by designating a clearly meaningful category of evolutionary changes originating by shifts in timing for features already present in ancestors. "It's not all heterochrony",and this particular statement of "less is more" represents heterochrony's strength as an interesting subset with definite meaning, rather than an illogical hodge-podge apparently applicable to all phenomena, and therefore explaining nothing. [source] The Marriage of Artist Novel and Bildungsroman: Goethe's Wilhelm Meister, A Paradigm in DisguiseGERMAN LIFE AND LETTERS, Issue 1 2006Hellmut Ammerlahn Goethe described the fruitful years from 1794, when he found Schiller's friendship and completed Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre, in metaphors of creativity, insight and abundance: ,ein neuer Frühling' and ,ein unaufhaltsames Fortschreiten philosophischer Ausbildung und ästhetischer Tätigkeit'. Yet since the mid-twentieth century what has been called Goethe's ,prototypischer Bildungsroman' and its central concept have come under attack. The more the novel's structure and the symbolism of the hero's relationships to all other characters were disregarded, the more Wilhelm's identity became ambiguous. Since the issue of genre is a major key to understanding the novel, Goethe's poetological and morphological principles are examined to make sense of the ,Masken' the author employs both to hide and to reveal Wilhelm's identity as a creative and self-reflexive poet. The first part of the ,Lehrbrief,' which deals with art and the artist as well as the mature Wilhelm's inheritance of his grandfather's art collection, receive focused attention. The hero's healing process from personal trauma, and his ultimate discovery of the solid foundation for his ,produktive Einbildungskraft' are tied to his poetic ,Doppelgänger', Mignon and the Harpist, and further to Shakespeare's Hamlet, the Tower, the picture of the sick prince, and to Natalie. The new interpretation of these interconnections reveals that with this novel Goethe produced nothing less than the paradigmatic ,Bildungsroman eines Dichters'. In the colourful figures that enter into or leave the hero's life, Goethe symbolises the increasingly demanding challenges his Wilhelm Meister has to confront and comprehend in order to master his vibrant imagination. [source] The Ideal Explanatory Text in History: A Plea for EcumenismHISTORY AND THEORY, Issue 3 2004Tor Egil Førland ABSTRACT This article presents Peter Railton's analysis of scientific explanation and discusses its application in historiography. Although Railton thinks covering laws are basic in explanation, his account is far removed from Hempel. The main feature of Railton's account is its ecumenism. The "ideal explanatory text," a central concept in Railton's analysis, has room for not only causal and intentional, but also structural and functional explanations. The essay shows this by analyzing a number of explanations in history. In Railton's terminology all information that reduces our insecurity as to what the explanandum is due is explanatory. In the "encyclopedic ideal explanatory text," different kinds of explanation converge in the explanandum from different starting points. By incorporating pragmatic aspects, Railton's account is well suited to show how explanations in historiography can be explanatory despite their lack of covering laws or tendency statements. Railton's account is also dynamic, showing how the explanatory quest is a never-ending search for better illumination of the ideal explanatory text. Railton's analysis is briefly compared to, and found compatible with, views on explanation presented by David Lewis, C. Behan McCullagh, and R. G. Collingwood. Confronted with Hans-Georg Gadamer's hermeneutics and Donald Davidson's insistence on the indeterminacy of interpretation, the essay suggests that the objectivity of the ideal explanatory text should be regarded as local, limited to the description under which the action is seen. [source] Treating International Institutions as Social EnvironmentsINTERNATIONAL STUDIES QUARTERLY, Issue 4 2001Alastair Iain Johnston Socialization theory is a neglected source of explanations for cooperation in international relations. Neorealism treats socialization (or selection, more properly) as a process by which autistic non-balancers are weeded out of the anarchical international system. Contractual institutionalists ignore or downplay the possibilities of socialization in international institutions in part because of the difficulties in observing changes in interests and preferences. For constructivists socialization is a central concept. But to date it has been undertheorized, or more precisely, the microprocesses of socialization have been generally left unexamined. This article focuses on two basic microprocesses in socialization theory,persuasion and social influence,and develops propositions about the social conditions under which one might expect to observe cooperation in institutions. Socialization theories pose questions for both the structural-functional foundations of contractual institutionalist hypotheses about institutional design and cooperation, and notions of optimal group size for collective action. [source] The genic view of the process of speciationJOURNAL OF EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY, Issue 6 2001Chung-I Wu The unit of adaptation is usually thought to be a gene or set of interacting genes, rather than the whole genome, and this may be true of species differentiation. Defining species on the basis of reproductive isolation (RI), on the other hand, is a concept best applied to the entire genome. The biological species concept (BSC; Mayr, 1963) stresses the isolation aspect of speciation on the basis of two fundamental genetic assumptions , the number of loci underlying species differentiation is large and the whole genome behaves as a cohesive, or coadapted genetic unit. Under these tenets, the exchange of any part of the genomes between diverging groups is thought to destroy their integrity. Hence, the maintenance of each species' genome cohesiveness by isolating mechanisms has become the central concept of species. In contrast, the Darwinian view of speciation is about differential adaptation to different natural or sexual environments. RI is viewed as an important by product of differential adaptation and complete RI across the whole genome need not be considered as the most central criterion of speciation. The emphasis on natural and sexual selection thus makes the Darwinian view compatible with the modern genic concept of evolution. Genetic and molecular analyses of speciation in the last decade have yielded surprisingly strong support for the neo-Darwinian view of extensive genetic differentiation and epistasis during speciation. However, the extent falls short of what BSC requires in order to achieve whole-genome ,cohesiveness'. Empirical observations suggest that the gene is the unit of species differentiation. Significantly, the genetic architecture underlying RI, the patterns of species hybridization and the molecular signature of speciation genes all appear to support the view that RI is one of the manifestations of differential adaptation, as Darwin (1859, Chap. 8) suggested. The nature of this adaptation may be as much the result of sexual selection as natural selection. In the light of studies since its early days, BSC may now need a major revision by shifting the emphasis from isolation at the level of whole genome to differential adaptation at the genic level. With this revision, BSC would in fact be close to Darwin's original concept of speciation. [source] Management of blood pressure after acute ischemic stroke: An evidence-based guide for the hospitalistJOURNAL OF HOSPITAL MEDICINE, Issue 4 2007Ethan Cumbler MD Abstract Hospitalists are frequently called upon to manage blood pressure after acute ischemic stroke. A review of both post infarction cerebral perfusion physiology and the data from randomized trials of antihypertensive therapy is necessary to explain why consensus guidelines for blood pressure management after stroke differ from those of other hypertensive emergencies. The peri-infarct penumbra is the central concept in understanding post ischemic cerebral perfusion. This area of impaired cerebral blood flow is dependent on mean arterial blood pressure and acute reduction of blood pressure may expand the area of infarction. Review of clinical trials fails to show benefit from reduction of blood pressure after ischemic stroke and current guidelines suggest antihypertensive therapy be employed if the systemic blood pressure is greater than 180/105 mmHg after tPA is employed, or 220/120 mmHg when tPA is not used. Induced hypertension remains a promising but unproven therapy in the acute setting, but the evidence for long term control of blood pressure to less than 140/80 mmHG for secondary prevention of stroke is strong. Adherence to guidelines is poor but it is recognized that current evidence is limited by a lack of trials in which blood pressure is titrated to a pre-specified goal, as is common in clinical practice. Journal of Hospital Medicine 2007;2:261,267. © 2007 Society of Hospital Medicine. [source] Development and evaluation of the conceptual inventory of natural selectionJOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SCIENCE TEACHING, Issue 10 2002Dianne L. Anderson Natural selection as a mechanism of evolution is a central concept in biology; yet, most nonbiology-majors do not thoroughly understand the theory even after instruction. Many alternative conceptions on this topic have been identified, indicating that the job of the instructor is a difficult one. This article presents a new diagnostic test to assess students' understanding of natural selection. The test items are based on actual scientific studies of natural selection, whereas previous tests have employed hypothetical situations that were often misleading or oversimplified. The Conceptual Inventory of Natural Selection (CINS) is a 20-item multiple choice test that employs common alternative conceptions as distractors. An original 12-item version of the test was field-tested with 170 nonmajors in 6 classes and 43 biology majors in 1 class at 3 community colleges. The test scores of one subset of nonmajors (n,=,7) were compared with the students' performances in semistructured interviews. There was a positive correlation between the test scores and the interview scores. The current 20-item version of the CINS was field-tested with 206 students in a nonmajors' general biology course. The face validity, internal validity, reliability, and readability of the CINS are discussed. Results indicate that the CINS will be a valuable tool for instructors. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 39: 952,978, 2002 [source] THOMAS REID ON MOLYNEUX'S QUESTIONPACIFIC PHILOSOPHICAL QUARTERLY, Issue 3 2005ROBERT HOPKINS The first version is used to address whether there are any properties originally perceived in both touch and vision. Although it is tempting to think the second discussion serves the same purpose, this would render pointless various novel features of the question Reid then frames. Instead, I suggest, Reid's second question provides the acid test of one of his central claims against the Ideal system, that the blind can form a conception of visible figure. The issue is not the cross-modality of perceptual representations, but the amodality of a central concept, as befits the Inquiry's central argumentative ambitions. [source] The politics of complexes,PSYCHOTHERAPY AND POLITICS INTERNATIONAL, Issue 2 2009Lawrence Alschuler Abstract The complex, a central concept of analytical psychology, contributes to an understanding of political consciousness in at least three ways: in tracing the influence of complexes on political attitudes; in treating oppressed consciousness as an expression of a cultural complex; and in viewing psychopolitical healing as the integration of split-off complexes in the oppressed. Case studies of Native people demonstrate the application of these ideas to the context of oppression. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Vocational Preference and P,O Fit: Reflections on Holland's Theory of Vocational ChoiceAPPLIED PSYCHOLOGY, Issue 1 2001Adrian Furnham It is 40 years since Holland first proposed his theory of vocational choice. In that period it is probably true to say that it has attracted more research than any other vocational guidance measure. This paper looks at the central concept in his theory (congruence) and other areas of vocational guidance, namely "fit". It also looks at current research issues relating to Holland's theory. Particular attention is paid to the research papers that examine the overlap between the six (RAISEC) personality types of Holland and the consensually accepted "Big Five" factor view of personality theorists. Finally a summary of the major theoretical, empirical, and methodological problems in the area is discussed. Cela fait maintenant quarante ans que Holland a pre´sente´ pour la premie`re fois sa the´orie du choix professionnel. On peut affirmer sans grand risque de se tromper qu'elle a suscite´ davantage de recherches que n'importe quelle autre approche de l'orientation professionnelle. On aborde dans cet article le concept central de sa the´orie (congruence), ainsi que d'autres aspects de l'orientation professionnelle, en particulier l'"ade´quation" ("fit"). On s'inte´resse e´galement aux re´sultats de recherches actuelles se re´fe´rant a` la the´orie de Holland. Une attention particulie`re est accorde´e aux articles qui analysent les correspondance entre les six personnalite´s types de Holland (RAISEC) et le mode`le dit du "Big Five" qui be´ne´ficie d'un assez large consensus. On re´capitule enfin les principaux proble`mes the´oriques, empiriques et me´thodologiques du secteur. [source] Beyond Agency Conceptions of the Work of the Non-Executive Director: Creating Accountability in the BoardroomBRITISH JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT, Issue 2005John Roberts This paper examines board effectiveness through an examination of the work and relationships of non-executive directors. It is based on 40 in-depth interviews with company directors, commissioned for the Higgs Review. The paper observes that research on corporate governance lacks understanding of the behavioural processes and effects of boards of directors. Whilst board structure, composition and independence condition board effectiveness it is the actual conduct of the non-executive vis-à-vis the executive that determines board effectiveness. Data about behaviour and relationships on boards suggest that traditional theoretical divisions between agency and stewardship theory, and control versus collaboration models of the board do not adequately reflect the lived experience of non-executive directors and other directors on the board. Developing accountability as a central concept in the explanation of how boards operate effectively enables the paper to both challenge the dominant grip of agency theory on governance research and support the search for theoretical pluralism and greater understanding of board processes and dynamics. Practically, the work suggests that corporate governance reform will be undermined by prescription that supports distant perceptions of board effectiveness but not the actual effectiveness of boards. [source] Distinctions in descriptive and instrumental stakeholder theory: a challenge for empirical researchBUSINESS ETHICS: A EUROPEAN REVIEW, Issue 1 2010Niklas Egels-Zandén Stakeholder theory is one of the most influential theories in business ethics. It is perhaps not surprising that a theory as popular as stakeholder theory should be used in different ways, but when the disparity between different uses becomes too great, it is questionable whether all the ,stakeholder research' refers to the same underlying theory. This paper starts to clarify this definitional confusion by distinguishing between three different ways in which different lines of stakeholder research are connected with descriptive and instrumental stakeholder theory. First, a distinction is made between research connected with descriptive and with instrumental stakeholder theory as defined by Donaldson & Preston in the narrow or broad sense. Second, a distinction is made between research that interprets descriptive and instrumental stakeholder theories as either hypotheses or research areas. Third, a distinction is made between research that interprets Donaldson & Preston's central concept of ,stakeholder management' as either behaviour or rationale. Finally, the paper discusses the implications of these differences for empirical research into stakeholder theory. [source] Bowen systems theory and mediationCONFLICT RESOLUTION QUARTERLY, Issue 2 2000Wayne Regina The field of mediation is largely technique- and process-driven. In an effort to develop a more comprehensive theoretical system for mediation, this article applies Bowen Systems Theory to mediation. The article begins with a brief overview of the development of Bowen Systems Theory; it proceeds to define its central concepts, including differentiation, triangulation, and chronic anxiety; finally, the article applies these concepts to mediation and discusses the relationship between theory and technique, using caucusing and co-mediation as examples. The article concludes that Bowen Systems Theory naturally extends to mediation, providing this field with a comprehensive theoretical system. [source] Planning for Path Dependence?ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY, Issue 2 2010The Case of a Network in the Berlin-Brandenburg Optics Cluster abstract Much research on regional business clusters refers to path dependence as a central feature in the evolution of cluster structures. In many cases, however, little is known about the agentic processes and mechanisms that underlie path dependence. In this article, we explore changes in a specific network in the optics cluster in the German region of Berlin-Brandenburg to show that development of clusters can be driven by elements of both emergence and planning. In particular, we argue that current actors actively and purposively draw upon rules and resources that were shaped not only in the long and discontinuous history of the cluster but also in the recent process of network development that involves careful planning and well-structured planning tools. Using central concepts from structuration theory, we show how agency is implicated in the coordination of the network and how agency turns coordination into a self-reinforcing mechanism. The findings suggest that purposive planning involves a fundamental ambivalence in the processes and outcomes of path dependence, at the level of both the cluster and its constituent networks. [source] To be or not to be what you eat: regulation of stoichiometric homeostasis among autotrophs and heterotrophsOIKOS, Issue 5 2010Jonas Persson Homeostasis of element composition is one of the central concepts of ecological stoichiometry. In this context, homeostasis is the resistance to change of consumer body composition in response to the chemical composition of consumer's food. To simplify theoretical analysis, it has generally been assumed that autotrophs exhibit flexibility in their composition, while heterotrophs are confined to a constant (strictly homeostatic) body composition. Yet, recent studies suggest that heterotrophs are not universally strictly homeostatic. We examined the degree to which autotrophs and heterotrophs regulate stoichiometric homeostasis (P:C, N:C, N:P, or %P and %N). We conducted a quantitative review and meta-analysis using 132 datasets extracted from 57 literature sources which examined the dependence of organismal stoichiometry on resource stoichiometry. Among individual datasets, there was a wide range of responses from strictly homeostatic to non-homeostatic. Even within heterotrophic organisms, varying levels of homeostasis were observed. Comparing the degree of homeostasis between organisms based on large-scale habitat types using meta-analysis indicated some significant differences between groups. For example, aquatic macroinvertebrates were significantly more homeostatic in terms of P:C than terrestrial invertebrates. Our meta-analysis also confirmed that, with regard to N:P, heterotrophs are significantly more homeostatic than autotrophs. Furthermore, our analysis indicated that the homeostasis parameter 1/H, despite being a potentially useful predictive metric, has to be utilized with caution since it oversimplifies some important aspects of the responses of organisms to elemental imbalances. This critical evaluation of stoichiometric homeostasis contributes to a better understanding of many food-web interactions, which are commonly driven by elemental imbalances between consumers and their resources. [source] EPISTEMOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS ON NEUROIMAGING , A CRUCIAL PREREQUISITE FOR NEUROETHICSBIOETHICS, Issue 6 2009CHRISTIAN G. HUBER ABSTRACT Purpose: Whereas ethical considerations on imaging techniques and interpretations of neuroimaging results flourish, there is not much work on their preconditions. In this paper, therefore, we discuss epistemological considerations on neuroimaging and their implications for neuroethics. Results: Neuroimaging uses indirect methods to generate data about surrogate parameters for mental processes, and there are many determinants influencing the results, including current hypotheses and the state of knowledge. This leads to an interdependence between hypotheses and data. Additionally, different levels of description are involved, especially when experiments are designed to answer questions pertaining to broad concepts like the self, empathy or moral intentions. Interdisciplinary theoretical frameworks are needed to integrate findings from the life sciences and the humanities and to translate between them. While these epistemological issues are not specific for neuroimaging, there are some reasons why they are of special importance in this context: Due to their inferential proximity, ,neuro-images' seem to be self-evident, suggesting directness of observation and objectivity. This has to be critically discussed to prevent overinterpretation. Additionally, there is a high level of attention to neuroimaging, leading to a high frequency of presentation of neuroimaging data and making the critical examination of their epistemological properties even more pressing. Conclusions: Epistemological considerations are an important prerequisite for neuroethics. The presentation and communication of the results of neuroimaging studies, the potential generation of new phenomena and new ,dysfunctions' through neuroimaging, and the influence on central concepts at the foundations of ethics will be important future topics for this discipline. [source] Moving Toward a Grand Theory of Development: In Memory of Esther ThelenCHILD DEVELOPMENT, Issue 6 2006John P. Spencer This paper is in memory of Esther Thelen, who passed away while President of the Society for Research in Child Development. A survey of Esther Thelen's career reveals a trajectory from early work on simple movements like stepping, to the study of goal-directed reaching, to work on the embodiment of cognition, and, ultimately, to a grand theory of development,dynamic systems theory. Four central concepts emerged during her career: (1) a new emphasis on time; (2) the proposal that behavior is softly assembled from the interaction of multiple subsystems; (3) the embodiment of perception, action, and cognition; and (4) a new respect for individuality. Esther Thelen communicated these ideas to scientists and practitioners alike, so the ultimate benefactors of her work were children. [source] | ||||||||||||||||||||||