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Thermal Process (thermal + process)
Selected AbstractsCOMPLEX METHOD FOR NONLINEAR CONSTRAINED MULTI-CRITERIA (MULTI-OBJECTIVE FUNCTION) OPTIMIZATION of THERMAL PROCESSINGJOURNAL OF FOOD PROCESS ENGINEERING, Issue 4 2003FERRUH ERDO ABSTRACT The goal in a multi-objective function optimization problem is to optimize the several objective functions simultaneously. the complex method is a powerful algorithm to find the optimum of a general nonlinear function within a constrained region. the objective of this study was to apply the complex method to two different shapes (a sphere and a finite cylinder) subjected to the same thermal processing boundary conditions to find a variable process temperature profile (decision variable) to maximize the volume-average retention of thiamine. A process temperature range of 5 to 150C was used as an explicit constraint. Implicit constraints were center temperature and accumulated center lethality of the sphere and the finite cylinder. the objective functions for both shapes were combined into a single one using a weighting method. Then, the previously developed complex algorithm was applied using Lexicographic Ordering to order the objective functions with respect to their significance. the results were reported as optimum variable process temperature profiles using the given geometries and objective functions. the thiamine retentions were also compared with a constant process temperature process, and 3.0% increase was obtained in the combined objective function. the results showed that the complex method can be successfully used to predict the optimum variable process temperature profiles in multi-criteria thermal processing problems. [source] Real-Time Control and Identification of a Thermal Process Based on Multiple-Modeling ApproachASIA-PACIFIC JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, Issue 3-4 2005A. Aminzadeh This article presents implementation of Real-Time Control and Identification algorithms based on a Multiple-Modeling approach for an experimental thermal process. The thermal process is a nonlinear plant; therefore, based on variations of the input and disturbance, four local operating regimes are defined. The linear local ARMAX models are identified for different regimes and integrated into a NARMAX model by combining them via proper validity and interpolation functions. Results of modeling the plant with a single model and multiple models show superior performance of the Multiple-Modeling technique which is also more flexible. Moreover, the Real-Time Control of the plant with four locally designed controllers is addressed. The platform used for the Real-Time implementation is Matlab/Simulink/Real-Time-Workshop with Visual C++ and Watcom compilers using a DAQ interface. The Real-Time application of the global controller based on the Multiple-Model approach demonstrates excellent performance for this design when compared to a single PID controller. [source] Synthesis and Monitoring of ,-Bi2Mo3O12 Catalyst Formation using Thermo-Raman SpectroscopyEUROPEAN JOURNAL OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, Issue 8 2004Anil Ghule Abstract Thermo-Raman spectroscopy was used to monitor the dehydration and phase transformations of Bi2Mo3O12·5H2O. The hydrated forms Bi2Mo3O12·5H2O, Bi2Mo3O12·4.75H2O, Bi2Mo3O12·3H2O, Bi2Mo3O12·2H2O, and anhydrous Bi2Mo3O12 were observed during dehydration in the wavelength range from 200 to 1400 cm,1. Representative Raman spectra of these compounds are reported for the first time. The thermo-Raman intensity thermogram showed a systematic dehydration in four steps, and the differential thermo-Raman intensity thermogram confirmed this. Thermogravimetry, differential thermogravimetry, and differential scanning calorimetry results were in harmony with the results of the thermo-Raman spectroscopy. Additionally, the dehydration resulting in formation of anhydrous Bi2Mo3O12 (amorphous Bi2Mo3O12 phase) and the final transformation into the ,-Bi2Mo3O12 phase was observed to be a dynamic thermal process. The slow, controlled heating rate produced ,-Bi2Mo3O12 catalyst with a particle size averaging 200 nm. The catalyst formed was further characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, time of flight SIMS, transmission electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray analysis. (© Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 69451 Weinheim, Germany, 2004) [source] Statistical theory of weak field thermoremanent magnetization in multidomain particle ensemblesGEOPHYSICAL JOURNAL INTERNATIONAL, Issue 2 2003Karl Fabian SUMMARY A non-equilibrium statistical theory of multidomain thermoremanent magnetization (TRM) is developed, which describes thermal magnetization changes as continuous inhomogeneous Markov processes. The proposed theory relies on three very general physical properties of TRM: (a) The probability that a magnetization state Sj is transformed during an infinitesimal temperature change into state Si depends only on external conditions and on Sj, but not on previously assumed states. (b) Due to time inversion symmetry of the Maxwell equations, the magnetic energies are invariant with respect to inversion of all spins in zero field. (c) The probability that an energy barrier between two magnetization states is overcome during a thermal process is governed by Boltzmann statistics. From these properties, the linearity of TRM with field is derived for generic multidomain particle ensembles. The general validity of Thellier's law of additivity of partial TRM's in weak fields is established and a method for proving a large class of similar additivity laws is developed. The theory allows consistent treatment of blocking and unblocking of remanence in multidomain particle ensembles and naturally explains apparent differences between blocking and unblocking temperatures. [source] Oriented Assemblies of ZnS One-Dimensional Nanostructures ,ADVANCED MATERIALS, Issue 9-10 2004Y.-C. Zhu Oriented ZnS nanobelt arrays and ZnS multicore microcables consisting of oriented nanowire bundles with sheaths (see Figure) have been synthesized via a controlled thermal process. Both the ZnS nanowires and nanobelts are single crystals grown along the [001] axis. The special structures of the oriented assemblies of ZnS one-dimensional nanostructures may have potential applications in nanoelectronics and photonics. [source] Identification of Listeria innocua Surrogates for Listeria monocytogenes in Hamburger PattiesJOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE, Issue 4 2008E.C. Friedly ABSTRACT:,Listeria innocua M1 has been used by many researchers as a nonpathogenic thermal processing surrogate for Listeria monocytogenes. However, L. innocua M1 has been criticized because its thermal survivability characteristics are not as closely parallel to L. monocytogenes as some would like in a variety of foods and processing conditions. The present study was conducted to compare multiple L. innocua and L. monocytogenes strains to validate L. innocua M1 as the ideal surrogate under high-temperature thermal processing conditions for L. monocytogenes. The D - and z -values of L. innocua M1, L. innocua strain SLCC 5639 serotype (6a), SLCC 5640 (6b), SLCC 2745 (4ab), and L. monocytogenes F4243 (4b) were calculated for raw hamburger patties. Hamburger patties were inoculated with 107,8 CFU/g of L. monocytogenes or L. innocua. Samples were heat treated at 4 temperatures (62.5 to 70 °C). At each temperature, the decimal reduction time (D -value) was obtained by linear regression of survival curves. The D - and z -values were determined for each bacterium. The D -values of L. innocua and L. monocytogenes serotypes ranged from 3.17 to 0.13 min at 62.5 to 70 °C, and the z -values of L. innocua and L. monocytogenes were 7.44 to 7.73 °C. Two of the 4 L. innocua serotypes used in this experiment have the potential for use as surrogates in hamburger meat with varying margins of safety. L. innocua M1 should serve as the primary nonpathogenic surrogate with the greatest margin of safety in verifying a new thermal process to destroy L. monocytogenes. [source] In situ thermo-TOF-SIMS study of thermal decomposition of zinc acetate dihydrateJOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY (INCORP BIOLOGICAL MASS SPECTROMETRY), Issue 10 2004Anil Vithal Ghule Abstract Time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) was used for an in situ thermal decomposition study of Zn(CH3COO)2·2H2O forming ZnO nanoparticles. TOF-SIMS spectra were recorded at regular temperature intervals of 25 °C in positive and negative detection modes in a dynamic thermal process. Controlled heating (5 °C min,1) of Zn(CH3COO)2·2H2O was also carried out using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) in an oxygen atmosphere (20 ml min,1). Nearly spherical ZnO nanoparticles with no agglomeration and a narrow size distribution (diameter ,50 nm) were observed, which were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and x-ray diffraction. In situ thermo-TOF-SIMS was used to monitor the 64Zn+ and 66Zn+ ion abundances as a function of temperature, which showed a similar profile to that observed for weight loss in TGA during decomposition. Based on the experimental results, a possible decomposition mechanism for the formation of ZnO is proposed. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Lost Mold Rapid Infiltration Forming of Mesoscale Ceramics: Part 1, FabricationJOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CERAMIC SOCIETY, Issue 2009Nicholas E. Antolino Free-standing mesoscale (340 ,m × 30 ,m × 20 ,m) bend bars with an aspect ratio over 15:1 and an edge resolution as fine as a single grain diameter (,400 nm) have been fabricated in large numbers on refractory ceramic substrates by combining a novel powder processing approach with photoresist molds and an innovative lost-mold thermal process. The colloid and interfacial chemistry of the nanoscale zirconia particulates has been modeled and used to prepare highly concentrated suspensions. Engineering solutions to challenges in mold fabrication and casting have yielded free-standing, crack-free parts. Molds are fabricated using high-aspect-ratio photoresist on ceramic substrates. Green parts are formed using a rapid infiltration method that exploits the shear thinning behavior of the highly concentrated ceramic suspension in combination with gelcasting. The mold is thermally decomposed and the parts are sintered in place on the ceramic substrate. Chemically aided attrition milling disperses and concentrates the as-received 3Y-TZP powder to produce a dense, fine-grained sintered microstructure. Initial three-point bend strength data are comparable to that of conventional zirconia; however, geometric irregularities (e.g., trapezoidal cross sections) are present in this first generation and are discussed with respect to the distribution of bend strength. [source] Preparation of Nanometer-Sized ,-Alumina Powders by Calcining an Emulsion of Boehmite and Oleic AcidJOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CERAMIC SOCIETY, Issue 1 2002Chih-Peng Lin This study proposes a method to form ultrafine ,-Al2O3 powders. Oleic acid is mixed with Al(OH)3 gel. The gel is the precursor of the Al2O3. After it is mixed and aged, the mixture is calcined in a depleted oxygen atmosphere between 25° and 1100°C. Oleic acid evaporates and decomposes into carbon during the thermal process. Residual carbon prevents the growth of agglomerates during the formation of ,-Al2O3. The phase transformation in this process is as follows: emulsion ,,-Al2O3,,-Al2O3,,-Al2O3,,-Al2O3. This process has no clear , phase. Aging the mixed sample lowers the formation temperature of ,-Al2O3 from 1100° to 1000°C. The average crystallite diameter is 60 nm, measured using Scherrer's equation, which is consistent with TEM observations. [source] Influence of enrofloxacin administration on the proteolytic and antioxidant enzyme activities of raw and cooked turkey productsJOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE, Issue 14 2005Irene Carreras Abstract The objective of this study was to assess the effect of enrofloxacin administration with and without withdrawal period on the quality of fresh meat and cooked products from turkey breasts. Cathepsin B and L activities were inactivated by the thermal process but were not affected by the presence of enrofloxacin. The level of enrofloxacin in samples without withdrawal time was higher than the regulatory maximum residue limit (MRL). The antioxidant enzymes glutathione peroxidase (GSHPx) and catalase (CAT) were affected by both the thermal process and the antibiotic residues in cooked meat. In no cases were differences found in superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, supporting the theory that this enzyme could play a major role in preventing lipid oxidation of cooked meat. Enrofloxacin residues could contribute to an increase in the oxidative stress produced by thermal processing, as can be deduced by the reduction in GSHPx and CAT activities. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry [source] The commensurate composite ,-structure of ,-tantalumACTA CRYSTALLOGRAPHICA SECTION B, Issue 3 2003Alla Arakcheeva The single-crystal investigation of the self-hosting ,-structure of ,-tantalum (,-Ta) at 120,K (low-temperature, LT, structure) and at 293,K (RT-I before cooling and RT-II after cooling and rewarming; RT represents room temperature) shows that this structure is indeed a specific two-component composite where the components have the same (or an integer multiple) lattice constants but different space groups. The space groups of both host (H) and guest (G) components cause systematic absences, which result from their intersection. The highest symmetry of a ,-structure can be described as [H: P42/mnm; G: P4/mbm (cG = 0.5cH); composite: P42/mnm]. A complete analysis of possible symmetries is presented in the Appendix. In ,-Ta, two components modify their symmetry during the thermal process 293,K (RT-I) , 120,K (LT) , 293,K (RT-II): [H: P21m; G: P21m; composite: P21m] , [H: P, G: P4/mbm (cG = 0.5cH), composite: P] , [H: P21m, G: P4/mbm (cG = 0.5cH), composite: P21m]. Thus, the phase transition is reversible with respect to H and irreversible with respect to G. [source] Real-Time Control and Identification of a Thermal Process Based on Multiple-Modeling ApproachASIA-PACIFIC JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, Issue 3-4 2005A. Aminzadeh This article presents implementation of Real-Time Control and Identification algorithms based on a Multiple-Modeling approach for an experimental thermal process. The thermal process is a nonlinear plant; therefore, based on variations of the input and disturbance, four local operating regimes are defined. The linear local ARMAX models are identified for different regimes and integrated into a NARMAX model by combining them via proper validity and interpolation functions. Results of modeling the plant with a single model and multiple models show superior performance of the Multiple-Modeling technique which is also more flexible. Moreover, the Real-Time Control of the plant with four locally designed controllers is addressed. The platform used for the Real-Time implementation is Matlab/Simulink/Real-Time-Workshop with Visual C++ and Watcom compilers using a DAQ interface. The Real-Time application of the global controller based on the Multiple-Model approach demonstrates excellent performance for this design when compared to a single PID controller. [source] From Time Temperature Integrator Kinetics to Time Temperature Integrator Tolerance Levels: Heat-Treated MilkBIOTECHNOLOGY PROGRESS, Issue 1 2004Wendie L. Claeys Six milk compounds were studied as potential intrinsic time temperature integrators (TTIs) for the assessment of heat-treated milk. These include the enzymes alkaline phosphatase and lactoperoxidase, the whey protein ,-lactoglobulin and the chemical compounds hydroxymethylfurfural, lactulose and furosine. In previous research the inactivation/denaturation/formation kinetics of these compounds were analyzed under isothermal and nonisothermal conditions and evaluated for variability of the milk composition. The present paper focuses on the implementation of the TTIs. TTIs are validated with respect to microbiological indices and quality attributes, and a quantitative relationship between the denaturation, inactivation or formation of the TTIs and technological processes is established by construction of general time temperature tolerance (TTT) diagrams. In these diagrams temperature time combinations are presented, which lead to the same formation, inactivation or denaturation of TTIs, or result in the same level of microbiological destruction or quality degradation of the product. TTT-diagrams are very informative since they allow visualization of the impact of a thermal process on milk and evaluation of criteria for evaluating milk authenticity (conformity of the product with the terminology applied). Moreover, the optimum combination of temperature and time of heating may be readily deduced from these diagrams. [source] Tafoni development in a cryotic environment: an example from Northern Victoria Land, AntarcticaEARTH SURFACE PROCESSES AND LANDFORMS, Issue 10 2008Andrea Strini Abstract Tafoni are a type of cavernous weathering widespread around the world. Despite the extensive distribution of the tafoni, their genesis is not clear and is still a matter of debate, also because they occur in such different climatic conditions and on so many different types of substrate. Geomorphological characterization of more than 60 tafoni in three different Antarctic sites (two coastal and one inland) between 74 and 76° S with sampling of weathering products and salt occurrences are described together with thermal data (on different surfaces) and wind speed recorded in different periods of the year in a selected tafone close to the Italian Antarctic station. The aim of this present study is to provide further information to help understand the processes involved in the growth of tafoni in a cryotic environment, and the relationship of these processes to climate, with particular attention to the thermal regime and the role of wind. The new data presented in this paper suggest that there is no single key factor that drives the tafoni development, although thermal stress seems the most efficient process, particularly if we consider the short-term fluctuations. The data also confirm that other thermal processes, such as freezing,thawing cycles and thermal shock, are not really effective for the development of tafoni in this area. The wind speed measured within the tafoni is half that recorded outside, thus favouring snow accumulation within the tafoni and therefore promoting salt crystallization. On the other hand, the wind effect on the thermal regime within the tafoni seems negligible. While both salt weathering and thermal stress appear active in this cryotic environment, these are azonal processes and are therefore active in other climatic areas where tafoni are widespread (such as the Mediterranean region). Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] INACTIVATION OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS EXPOSED TO DENSE-PHASE CARBON DIOXIDE IN A BATCH SYSTEMJOURNAL OF FOOD PROCESS ENGINEERING, Issue 1 2009HUACHUN HUANG ABSTRACT The inactivation of Staphylococcus aureus exposed to dense-phase carbon dioxide (DPCD) was investigated, and the kinetics of come-up time (CUT) in pressurization was monitored with come-down time (CDT) and temperature fluctuation in depressurization. CUT was about 2.5, 3.5, 4.0 and 4.0 min; CDT was 3.4, 3.7, 4.5 and 4.5 min; lowest temperature of samples in depressurization was 4, ,1, ,15 and ,22C, corresponding to 10, 20, 30 and 40 MPa at 37C. The inactivation behavior of S. aureus was closely related to the variables of process pressure, holding-pressure time (HPT), process temperature and process cycling. The log reduction of S. aureus at 40 MPa for 30-min HPT was significantly greater (P < 0.05), but the inactivation effect at 10, 20 and 30 MPa was similar. The log reduction of S. aureus at 30 and 40 MPa for 60-min HPT was similar and significantly greater (P < 0.05), while the inactivation effect at 10 and 20 MPa was similar. The inactivation of S. aureus against HPT conformed to a fast,slow biphase kinetics; the two stages were well fitted to a first-order model with higher regression coefficients R2 = 1.000 and 0.9238; their respective D values (decimal reduction time) were 16.52 and 70.42 min. As the process temperature increased, the log reduction of S. aureus increased significantly (P < 0.05); the inactivation kinetics of S. aureus versus process temperature was characterized with a fast inactivation rate from 32 to 45C and a slow inactivation rate from 45 to 55C. As compared to one-process cycling for a total of 60-min HPT, four-process cycling resulted in a significant reduction of S. aureus, and its maximal reduction was near to 5 log cycles, indicating that more process cycling caused more inactivation of S. aureus under identical pressure and temperature with equal HPT. However, the maximal reduction was 0.09 and 0.12 log cycles for two- and four-process cyclings with 0-min HPT, indicating that pressurization and depressurization had a lesser effect on the inactivation of S. aureus, while HPT was significant in DPCD to inactivate S. aureus. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS Dense-phase carbon dioxide (DPCD) is a novel technology to achieve cold pasteurization and/or sterilization of liquid and solid materials, and is likely to replace or partially substitute currently and widely applied thermal processes. This study showed that DPCD effectively inactivated Staphylococcus aureus inoculated in 7.5% sodium chloride broth, and the inactivation behavior of S. aureus was closely related to the pressure, holding-pressure time, temperature and process cycling. Based on this observation, the technology of DPCD can be applied in the pasteurization of foods such as milk and various fruit juices, especially thermal-sensitive materials. [source] Numerical Analysis of Survival of Listeria monocytogenes during In-Package Pasteurization of Frankfurters by Hot Water ImmersionJOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE, Issue 5 2007Lihan Huang ABSTRACT:, The objective of this research was to develop and validate a more accurate method to analyze and calculate the inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes in frankfurter packages during postlethality hot water immersion heating and the subsequent cooling processes. Finite difference analysis with implicit scheme was used to simulate the heat transfer process during in-package pasteurization of frankfurters. A volumetrically distributed simulation method was developed to calculate the lethality of the thermal treatment. The simulation method was validated using frankfurter packages inoculated with a 4-strain cocktail of L. monocytogenes. Experimental results showed that the numerical analysis model could accurately simulate the heat transfer process during heating and cooling of frankfurter packages. The simulated temperatures on the surface or in the middle of the package matched very closely with the experimental observations. Using the simulated temperature distribution in the packages, the integrated lethality simulation method, based on the volumetric distribution of bacteria, could accurately predict the reduction in the bacterial counts. The calculation results were on average within 0.3 log(CFU/g) difference from the experimental observations, while the General Method systematically underestimated the bacterial reductions by approximately 0.9 log(CFU/g). The study shows that the integrated lethality method is more accurate than the General Method in calculating the lethality of thermal processes for conduction-heated foods. [source] The fate of mycotoxins during thermal food processingJOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE, Issue 4 2009Bulent Kabak Abstract Mycotoxins are considered to be heat-stable molecules. Because of their toxic effects, information about their stability in thermal processes and potential inactivation procedures is needed. Numerous reports in the literature over a number of years have described the fate of mycotoxin during thermal food processing, including cooking, boiling, baking, frying, roasting and pasteurization. This review focuses on the effects of various thermal treatments on mycotoxins, while the fate of mycotoxins during extrusion processing, which is one of the most important technologies employed in the food industry, will also be reviewed. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry [source] The Fountain Hills unique CB chondrite: Insights into thermal processes on the CB parent bodyMETEORITICS & PLANETARY SCIENCE, Issue 6 2009Dante S. LAURETTA This meteorite is closely related to the CBa class. Mineral compositions and O-isotopic ratios are indistinguishable from other members of this group. However, many features of Fountain Hills are distinct from the other CB chondrites. Fountain Hills contains 23 volume percent metal, significantly lower than other members of this class. In addition, Fountain Hills contains porphyritic chondrules, which are extremely rare in other CBa chondrites. Fountain Hills does not appear to have experienced the extensive shock seen in other CB chondrites. The chondrule textures and lack of fine-grained matrix suggests that Fountain Hills formed in a dust-poor region of the early solar system by melting of solid precursors. Refractory siderophiles and lithophile elements are present in near-CI abundances (within a factor of two, related to the enhancement of metal). Moderately volatile and highly volatile elements are significantly depleted in Fountain Hills. The abundances of refractory siderophile trace elements in metal grains are consistent with condensation from a gas that is reduced relative to solar composition and at relatively high pressures (10,3bars). Fountain Hills experienced significant thermal metamorphism on its parent asteroid. Combining results from the chemical gradients in an isolated spinel grain with olivine-spinel geothermometry suggests a peak temperature of metamorphism between 535 °C and 878 °C, similar to type-4 ordinary chondrites. [source] Permafrost properties, patterns and processes in the Transantarctic Mountains regionPERMAFROST AND PERIGLACIAL PROCESSES, Issue 3 2006Iain B. Campbell Abstract The properties, distribution patterns and thermal processes that influence the active layer and permafrost in the Transantarctic Mountains region of Antarctica, as deduced from our soil investigations since 1964 and drilling investigations since 1990, are outlined. The active layer depth varies from around 80,cm thick in coastal areas to <5,cm in inland and upland regions, due to the effect of the adiabatic lapse rate. Saline, ice-bonded, dry permafrost and transitional types of permafrost all occur. Ice content is highest in ice-bonded permafrost of the coastal regions and lowest in inland dry permafrost where values may be <1%. At the regional scale, ice-bonded permafrost most commonly occurs at lower elevations and beneath younger land surfaces but with increasing elevation, distance inland and land surface age, dry permafrost becomes predominant. At the local scale (<1,m) there are large variations in the depth to the permafrost table due to variations in ground surface features. Permafrost properties are largely governed by solar energy receipt, but albedo, air temperature cooling and available soil moisture strongly modulate the conversion of solar energy receipt into soil heating. These factors account for the considerable broad-scale and local variability in permafrost properties that exists. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Non-thermal bacterial inactivation with dense CO2BIOTECHNOLOGY & BIOENGINEERING, Issue 6 2003S. Spilimbergo Abstract The use of CO2 under pressure (dense CO2) is one of the most promising techniques to achieve cold pasteurization and/or sterilization of liquid and solid materials, and is likely to replace or partially substitute currently and widely applied thermal processes. Although the ability of CO2 to inactivate microorganisms has been known since the 1950's, only within the last 15 years it has received special attention, and the scientific and economic interest towards practical applications is presently growing more and more. Here we collect and discuss the relevant current knowledge about the potentials of dense CO2 as a non-thermal technology in the field of microbial inactivation. We summarize the state of the art, including definitions, description of the equipment, relevant applications, in both simple suspensions and complex media, for the treatment of a wide range of microorganisms in both liquid and solid substrates. Finally, we also summarize and discuss the different hypotheses about the mechanisms of inactivation © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Biotechnol Bioeng84: 627,638, 2003. [source] | ||||||||||||||||||||||