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Social Mobility (social + mobility)

Distribution by Scientific Domains

Humanities and Social Sciences	82%
4 Other Domains	18%

Distribution within Humanities and Social Sciences

General Sociology	70%
General & Introductory Geography	6%
6 Other Subdomains	24%

Selected Abstracts

Measuring Social Mobility as Unpredictability

ECONOMICA, Issue 269 2001
Simon C. Parker
By associating mobility with the unpredictability of social states, new measures of social mobility may be constructed. We propose a family of three state-by-state and aggregate (scalar) predictability measures. The first set of measures is based on the transition matrix. The second uses a sampling approach and permits statistical testing of the hypothesis of perfect mobility, providing a new justification for the use of the ,2 statistic. The third satisfies the demanding criterion of ,period consistency'. An empirical example demonstrates the usefulness of the new measures to complement existing ones in the literature. [source]

An Introductory Note to the Special Issue on Social Stratification and Social Mobility

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF JAPANESE SOCIOLOGY, Issue 1 2000
Article first published online: 29 JAN 200
No abstract is available for this article. [source]

Education and Social Mobility in Postwar Japan: Trends and Some Institutional Aspects

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF JAPANESE SOCIOLOGY, Issue 1 2000
Hiroyuki Kondo
Abstract, This paper examines the trend in social mobility in postwar Japan, especially focusing on the mediating role of education. The data set is derived from the SSM (Social Stratification and Social Mobility) surveys. Applying log-linear models to the data of five periods, we analyze the trend of the relationship among origin, education, and destination. Occupations are classified according to type of job, and son's first job is used for the analysis. The result reveals that the unmediating transmission of position has declined, and education is becoming a more significant mediator between origin and destination. These changes proceed in the form of reduction in the random sphere of ,movers' as well as replacement of ,stayers' with ,movers'. However, the association between origin and destination has hardly changed for several decades. This stablity results from the inequality in educational resources available to families and the specificities, not universality, of relations surviving into the higher level of education. [source]

Has social mobility in Britain decreased?

THE BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY, Issue 2 2010
Reconciling divergent findings on income, class mobility
Abstract Social mobility has become a topic of central political concern. In political and also media circles it is widely believed that in Britain today mobility is in decline. However, this belief appears to be based on a single piece of research by economists that is in fact concerned with intergenerational income mobility: specifically, with the relation between family income and children's later earnings. Research by sociologists using the same data sources , the British birth cohort studies of 1958 and 1970 , but focusing on intergenerational class mobility does not reveal a decline either in total mobility rates or in underlying relative rates. The paper investigates these divergent findings. We show that they do not result from the use of different subsets of the data or of different analytical techniques. Instead, given the more stable and generally less fluid class mobility regime, it is the high level of income mobility of the 1958 cohort, rather than the lower level of the 1970 cohort, that is chiefly in need of explanation. Further analyses , including ones of the relative influence of parental class and of family income on children's educational attainment , suggest that the economists' finding of declining mobility between the two cohorts may stem, in part at least, from the fact that the family income variable for the 1958 cohort provides a less adequate measure of ,permanent income' than does that for the 1970 cohort. But, in any event, it would appear that the class mobility regime more fully captures the continuity in economic advantage and disadvantage that persists across generations. [source]

Social mobility and social capital in contemporary Britain

THE BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY, Issue 3 2008
Yaojun Li
Abstract This paper seeks to contribute to social capital research by linking measures of formal and informal forms of social capital to social mobility trajectories and assessing their impact on social trust. Drawing on data from a recent national survey ,Cultural Capital and Social Exclusion (2003/2004) , we analyse formal civic engagement and informal social connections. The latter data are obtained using, for the first time in a study in Britain, Lin's (2001) ,Position Generator' approach as a means to identify the volume, range and position of individuals' informal social contacts. The pattern of contacts suggests that access to social ties is strongly conditioned by mobility trajectory. We also show that civic engagement in formal associations is especially high among second-generation members of the service class. It is also shown that both class trajectory and possession of two types of social capital have significant impacts on trust. Among the social groups disadvantaged in terms of bridging social ties are not only those in lower classes but also women and members of minority ethnic groups. [source]

Social mobility and constitutional and political preferences in Northern Ireland

THE BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY, Issue 4 2001
Richard Breen
ABSTRACT During the past thirty years Catholics in Northern Ireland have experienced unprecedented upward social mobility. Some commentators have suggested that this has led Catholics not merely to adopt the lifestyles of the middle class but also to modify their constitutional preferences, leading to a decline in nationalism. In this paper I examine the relationship between social mobility, on the one hand, and, on the other, both constitutional preferences and political (left or right wing) preferences among Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland, using survey data collected in 1996. There is no evidence that Catholics' constitutional preferences are related to their mobility experiences. [source]

Muslim-Christian Relations in Medieval Southern Italy

THE MUSLIM WORLD, Issue 2 2007
Julie Anne Taylor
In response to uprisings in Sicily, the emperor Frederick II transferred an estimated 20,000 Muslims to the city of Lucera in Apulia. Outside the Iberian Peninsula, Lucera came to have the largest Muslim population of any city in western Europe. Although the formation of the colony led to competition for resources between its inhabitants and the local Christian population, the members of the two religious communities often traded and collaborated. Social mobility was possible for the Lucerine Muslims, particularly through military service. Like Christians and Jews living in the dar al-Islam, the Muslims of Lucera had a protected status, and they paid a tax called the jizya. They remained free to practice their religion. The heavy taxes paid by the Muslim colony at Lucera during its almost eighty-year existence made it a valuable asset to the Hohenstaufen and Angevin crowns. Nevertheless, the settlement was dismantled in 1300 on the order of the Angevin king, Charles II, who gave a religious justification. The colony's history provides insight into the complex relations between Muslims and Christians in medieval Mediterranean Europe. [source]

Critical Thoughts on Teaching Standard English

CURRICULUM INQUIRY, Issue 2 2000
Barbara L. Speicher
This article exposes four assumptions that underlie most discussions of Standard English. First, spoken English equates to written English. Substantial evidence demonstrates that this equation is both misleading and false. Second, spoken and written English are equally amenable to standardization. This is also fallacious. We will use Prototype Theory (Rosch et al., 1976) and Standard Ideology (Milroy and Milroy, 1991) to explore how broadly shared notions about standard language have led to this belief. Third, Standard English is the language of the workplace and essential for social mobility. While we do not refute this assumption, we do explore the discrimination that stems from it. Fourth, Standard English is the language of the classroom. This assumption has never been systematically tested in the literature by examining the language that teachers use. Nor is it clear that teachers believe they do or should impose an idealized spoken form on their students. [source]

Placing Progress: Contextual Inequality and Immigrant Incorporation in the United States

ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY, Issue 3 2008
Jamie Goodwin-White
Abstract This article contributes to the growing body of research on the economic incorporation of immigrants by considering the relative wages of immigrants, the adult children of immigrants, and the U.S.-born children of U.S. parentage. By disaggregating these three groups racially, comparing entire wage distributions, and comparing the immigrant cities of New York and Los Angeles with the United States overall, it presents a perspective on the complicated contexts of the intergenerational progress of immigrants. In addition to comparing the groups' relative positions in 1990 and 2000, the article decomposes relative wages such that differences in the educational composition of groups can be isolated from residual wage inequality. This research is of interest because consideration of the U.S.-born or educated children of immigrants invokes questions of social mobility and the persistence of ethnic inequality more generally. The article also contributes to a theoretical debate over place and immigrants' progress by examining the second generation, for whom residence in immigrant cities is often theorized as detrimental to economic incorporation. Finally, it introduces a substantial analysis of local wage structures to questions of immigrants' intergenerational economic progress to a much greater extent than has previously been the case. The results suggest that prospects for immigrants' economic incorporation are geographically specific and should be assessed across multiple generations as a result of the continuing contexts of racial wage inequality [source]

Measuring Social Mobility as Unpredictability

Transnational Ties, Poverty, and Identity: Latin American Immigrant Women in Public Housing,

FAMILY RELATIONS, Issue 4 2008
Silvia Domínguez
Abstract: This study used ethnographic data to examine the nature and functions of transnational relationships of low-income Latin American women who had immigrated to the United States and were living in areas of extreme poverty. Findings indicated that these Latin American mothers utilized transnational ties to help maintain the cultural identities of themselves and their children, to alleviate social isolation, and to provide a safer summer housing alternative for their children. Transnational ties may have had some negative consequences, including financial and social burdens associated with maintaining long-distance familial relationships. However, despite some negative aspects, we conclude that transnational ties are often an instrumental resource for immigrant mothers living in poverty and are vital to immigrant social mobility. [source]

,MOVING AROUND': THE SOCIAL AND SPATIAL MOBILITY OF YOUTH IN LUSAKA

GEOGRAFISKA ANNALER SERIES B: HUMAN GEOGRAPHY, Issue 3 2008
Katherine V. Gough
ABSTRACT Claims have recently been made for a ,mobilities paradigm' which is challenging the relative ,a-mobile' focus of much of the social sciences. The agenda drawn up for this mobilities paradigm is clearly based on Northern trends with little consideration of the South. African populations have always been mobile but little is known about the mobility of urban populations and in particular of the youth, who constitute a large proportion of the population. This paper explores the daily and residential mobility of young people in Lusaka building upon interviews held with low- and middle-income youth. The aim is to contribute to discussions of: how mobility varies by gender and class; the links between spatial mobility and social and economic mobility; the nature of the relationship between patterns of mobility and residential structure; and how examining mobility can illuminate many other aspects of young people's lives. Overall the picture emerging from Lusaka is rather bleak. In a context of spiralling economic decline and rising HIV/AIDS rates, the social mobility of youth is predominantly downwards which is reflected in the residential and daily mobility patterns of the young people. There is a strong link between young people's mobility and their livelihoods, an aspect of mobility that is widespread in the South but largely overlooked by the emerging mobilities paradigm. [source]

Feminism in the Grips of a Pincer Attack,Traditionalism, liberalism, and globalism

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF JAPANESE SOCIOLOGY, Issue 1 2005
Yumiko Ehara
Abstract:, The dichotomy of individualism versus collectivism is one of the pivots around which political ideologies in postwar Japanese society can be broken down. Many people had thought that what postwar Japan needed was the development of modern individuals who represented a departure from feudalistic thinking. Against the backdrop of uncertainties related to employment and life in general engendered by a prolonged economic stagnation and globalism, Japanese society in the twenty-first century is being pounded by a tempest of neoliberalism and neoconservatism. In the midst of this storm, ideas advocating social policies that promote gender equality are being dismantled by both of these forces. This is because the power of traditionalism as a force for asserting a revisionist ideology in modern Japanese society primarily constitutes the power of neoconservatism, which embraces neoliberalism with a view to revitalizing the free economy through the elimination of social welfare and the intensification of free competition. In order to establish formidable economic competitiveness, neoliberalism and neoconservatism (neoliberalism = neoconservatism) reject domestic systems geared towards labor protection (deregulation) and extol familism and nationalism as means to bringing social unrest under control through the mobilization of the labor force (traditionalism). However, the habitual way of thinking that places traditionalism and liberalism in a dichotomous pivot remains ingrained within us even now. Because globalization reinforces social mobility, these two positions will continue to gain strength even as they conflict with each other. With feminism in the grips of a pincer attack, the movement will struggle to maintain its breath. [source]

Education and Social Mobility in Postwar Japan: Trends and Some Institutional Aspects

Motility: mobility as capital

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN AND REGIONAL RESEARCH, Issue 4 2004
Vincent Kaufmann
Social and territorial structures form intricate relations that transcend a social stratification or spatial focus. Territorial features and geographic displacements are structuring principles for society, as societal features and social change effect the structure and use of territory. Based on our examination of the conceptual and theoretical links between spatial and social mobility, we propose a concept that represents a new form of inequality. Termed ,motility', this construct describes the potential and actual capacity of goods, information or people to be mobile both geographically and socially. Three major features of motility , access, competence and appropriation , are introduced. In this article, we focus on conceptual and theoretical contributions of motility. In addition, we suggest a number of possible empirical investigations. Motility presents us with an innovative perspective on societal changes without prematurely committing researchers to work within structuralist or postmodern perspectives. More generally, we propose to revisit the fluidification debate in the social sciences with a battery of questions that do not begin and end with whether or not society is in flux. Instead, we introduce a field of research that takes advantage of the insights from competing paradigms in order to reveal the social dynamics and consequences of displacements in geographic and social space. Les structures sociales et territoriales forment des relations complexes qui dépassent toute stratification sociale ou convergence spatiale. Les caractéristiques territoriales et déplacements géographiques sont, pour la société, des principes structurants, tout comme les caractéristiques sociétales et le changement social font naître la structure et l'usage d'un territoire. A partir d'un examen des liens conceptuels et théoriques entre les mobilités spatiale et sociale, cet article propose un concept traduisant une nouvelle forme d'inégalité: appelé,motilité', il décrit le potentiel et l'aptitude réelle des marchandises, informations ou individus àêtre mobiles sur un plan tant géographique que social. Trois traits essentiels de la motilité, accès, compétence et appropriation , sont présentés. Si l'article s'attache aux contributions conceptuelles et théoriques de la motilité, il suggère aussi plusieurs axes possibles d'études empiriques. La motilité offre une perspective novatrice sur les changements sociétaux, sans engager prématurément les travaux de recherches sur des rails structuralistes ou post-modernes. Plus généralement, il s'agit de revisiter le débat sur la fluidification en sciences sociales à l'aide d'une batterie de questions qui, ni au début ni à la fin, ne demande si la société est fluctuante ou non. En revanche, l'article propose un domaine de recherches qui exploite les réflexions tirées de paradigmes concurrents afin de révéler la dynamique sociale et les conséquences des déplacements dans l'espace géographique et social. [source]

The American Master Bedroom: Its Changing Location and Significance to the Family

JOURNAL OF INTERIOR DESIGN, Issue 1 2005
John L. Vollmer M. S.
ABSTRACT This article discusses the possible relationship between changes in the master bedroom and parenting values in middle class America. The authors review information from the US homebuilding industry, statistical data on housing trends, literature on the history of the bedroom from the Colonial period to the present, and literature on family sleep practices. The owner's bedroom, one domain among various domains in the home, is an individual-private domain that functions to ensure adult privacy and increase physical barriers between parents and children. The authors contend that changes in the location and function of the master bedroom in the American home over the past centuries reflect the upward social mobility afforded by rising incomes, expansive and undeveloped land, and shared concepts of prestige held by home builders and homeowners. These influences have helped develop a purely American sense of parenting among middle and upper-income families that reflects their individualism. Middle class parents have encouraged more physical distance between themselves and their offspring. Consistent with this trend, they have shown a preference for houses with large master suites that are sometimes located at a distance from other bedrooms in the house. Using a model by Chermayeff and Alexander (1965), the authors examine the relationship between parenting practices and private space, highlighting the implications of this trend for home planners and interior designers. [source]

Exploring social mobility with latent trajectory groups

JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL STATISTICAL SOCIETY: SERIES A (STATISTICS IN SOCIETY), Issue 1 2008
Patrick Sturgis
Summary., We present a new methodological approach to the study of social mobility. We use a latent class growth analysis framework to identify five qualitatively distinct social class trajectory groups between 1980 and 2000 for male respondents to the 1970 British Cohort Study. We model the antecedents of trajectory group membership via multinomial logistic regression. Non-response, which is a considerable problem in long-term panels and cohort studies, is handled via direct maximum likelihood estimation, which is consistent and efficient when data are missing at random. Our results suggest a combination of meritocratic and ascriptive influences on the probability of membership in the different trajectory groups. [source]

The facts about social mobility

PUBLIC POLICY RESEARCH, Issue 4 2003
Stephen Aldridge
[source]

Has social mobility in Britain decreased?

Does intergenerational social mobility affect antagonistic attitudes towards ethnic minorities?

THE BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY, Issue 2 2009
Jochem Tolsma
Abstract Up till now, no study satisfactorily addressed the effect of social mobility on antagonistic attitudes toward ethnic minorities. In this contribution, we investigate the effect of educational and class intergenerational mobility on ethnic stereotypes, ethnic threat, and opposition to ethnic intermarriage by using diagonal mobility models. We test several hypotheses derived from ethnic competition theory and socialization theory with data from the Social and Cultural Developments in The Netherlands surveys (SOCON, waves 1995, 2000, and 2005) and The Netherlands Kinship and Panel Study (NKPS, wave 2002). We find that the relative influence of social origin and social destination depends on the specific origin and destination combination. If one moves to a more tolerant social destination position, the influence of the social origin position is negligible. If on the other hand, one is socially mobile to a less tolerant social position, the impact of the origin on antagonistic attitudes is substantial and may even exceed the impact of the destination category. This confirms our hypothesis that adaptation to more tolerant norms is easier than adaptation to less tolerant norms. We find only meagre evidence for the hypothesis that downward mobility leads to frustration and consequently to more antagonistic attitudes. [source]

Political attitudes, social participation and social mobility: a longitudinal analysis1

THE BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY, Issue 3 2008
Lindsay Paterson
Abstract It is often suggested that the political attitudes and social participation which have underpinned the welfare-state democracies have depended on large amounts of upward social mobility. The demographic heterogeneity of the service class, according to this view, induced in them a willingness to lead a common political project seeking to establish a common social citizenship. As the amount of upward mobility stagnates or even begins to fall, it has then further been claimed that there might emerge a degree of ideological closure in the service class that might erode their commitment to civic values. The 1958 British birth cohort study is used to investigate this question. Longitudinal data are invaluable here because they allow us to distinguish between two hypotheses: that upward mobility as such has induced in the service class certain attitudes and propensities to participate, or that the more important influence is the early socialization through which upwardly mobile people went. The conclusion of the analysis is that, although the civic values of the service class have not depended on upward mobility, this is much more true of cognitively able people than of others, and so is dependent on the somewhat meritocratic basis of selection into the salariat. [source]

Intergenerational class mobility in contemporary Britain: political concerns and empirical findings1

THE BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY, Issue 4 2007
John H. Goldthorpe
Abstract In Britain in recent years social mobility has become a topic of central political concern, primarily as a result of the effort made by New Labour to make equality of opportunity rather than equality of condition a focus of policy. Questions of the level, pattern and trend of mobility thus bear directly on the relevance of New Labour's policy analysis, and in turn are likely be crucial to the evaluation of its performance in government. However, politically motivated discussion of social mobility often reveals an inadequate grasp of both empirical and analytical issues. We provide new evidence relevant to the assessment of social mobility , in particular, intergenerational class mobility , in contemporary Britain through cross-cohort analyses based on the NCDS and BCS datasets which we can relate to earlier cross-sectional analyses based on the GHS. We find that, contrary to what seems now widely supposed, there is no evidence that absolute mobility rates are falling; but, for men, the balance of upward and downward movement is becoming less favourable. This is overwhelmingly the result of class structural change. Relative mobility rates, for both men and women, remain essentially constant, although there are possible indications of a declining propensity for long-range mobility. We conclude that under present day structural conditions there can be no return to the generally rising rates of upward mobility that characterized the middle decades of the twentieth century , unless this is achieved through changing relative rates in the direction of greater equality or, that is, of greater fluidity. But this would then produce rising rates of downward mobility to exactly the same extent , an outcome apparently unappreciated by, and unlikely to be congenial to, politicians preoccupied with winning the electoral ,middle ground'. [source]

Religion, social mobility and education in Scotland

THE BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY, Issue 3 2006
Lindsay Paterson
Abstract The relationship among religion, education and social mobility in Scotland is analysed statistically using the Scottish Household Survey of 2001. The large sample size allows much greater statistical power for this purpose than any previous source, and thus allows a more reliable assessment of claims that the stratifying effect of religion in Scotland may have declined. The questions investigated are as follows. What are the religious differences in the distributions of class origins and class destinations, in the movement between these (absolute mobility), and in the association of these (relative mobility, or social fluidity)? Do changes in social fluidity across cohorts vary among people with different religious affiliation? Are there religious differences in the association of origins and education, in the association of education and destinations, or in the role of education in social fluidity, and do any of these vary over cohorts? The conclusions are that, in younger cohorts, there is no religious difference in social status, and that in older cohorts Catholics are generally of lower status than Protestants and the non-religious. Social fluidity does not, however, vary among religious groups, even for older cohorts, and does not change over time. The reason for convergence in social status of religious groups over time is probably the equalizing of educational attainment among the groups: there is no evidence for any of the cohorts that the labour-market rewards to education differ by religion. [source]

Industrialization, class structure, and social mobility in postwar Japan 1

THE BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY, Issue 4 2001
Hiroshi Ishida
ABSTRACT This study examines intergenerational class mobility in Japan using cross-national comparisons with Western nations and cross-temporal comparisons of five national surveys conducted in postwar Japan. Cross-national comparisons highlight the similarity in relative mobility pattern between Japan and Western nations and at the same time the Japanese distinctiveness in absolute mobility rates especially regarding the demographic character of the Japanese manual working class. The results of cross-temporal comparisons of mobility pattern report some systematic trends in total mobility, inflow and outflow rates, reflecting the Japanese experience of late but rapid industrialization. The pattern of association between class origin and class destination, however, was stable in postwar Japan. It is therefore the combination of distinctive absolute mobility rates and similar relative mobility rates that characterizes the Japanese mobility pattern in comparison with the Western experience. Furthermore, Japan's distinctive pattern of postwar social mobility is characterized by a combination of rapidly changing absolute mobility rates and comparatively stable relative mobility rates. [source]

Social mobility and constitutional and political preferences in Northern Ireland

Keeping connected: security, place, and social capital in a ,Londoni' village in Sylhet

THE JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, Issue 3 2008
Katy Gardner
This article explores the relationship between social mobility, insecurity, and connectedness to hierarchically ordered foreign places in Sylhet, Bangladesh. Here, particular areas have migratory connections with Britain, a destination which is perceived by those left behind as supplying bountiful economic opportunities and long-lasting security. In contrast, Bangladesh is experienced as insecure and lacking in prospects. Within this context, social connections are vital, for through them links to Britain are produced and maintained; this is especially the case for young men who are hoping to find a British bride. For them, connectedness results from both their social capital (relationships to successful ,Londoni' migrants who help arrange their marriages) and their cultural capital (gained by participating in particular forms of work and lifestyles, thus making them more attractive as prospective grooms). Meanwhile for those families settled in Britain, another form of transnational connectedness takes place, in which the political insecurity and social exclusion experienced in Britain are offset by economic and social investments in the desh (homeland). Résumé L'article explore la relation entre mobilité sociale, insécurité et connections avec des lieux situés à l'étranger et entre lesquels une hiérarchie est établie. Dans le Sylhet, région du Bangladesh, certaines zones ont des connections migratoires avec la Grande-Bretagne, destination que ceux qui sont restés perçoivent comme riche de possibilités économiques lucratives et de sécurité durable alors que le Bangladesh est perçu comme peu sûr et dépourvu de perspectives. Dans ce contexte, les connections sociales sont vitales car elles font le lien avec la Grande-Bretagne, en particulier pour les jeunes hommes qui espèrent y trouver une épouse. Dans leur cas, les connections sont le produit à la fois d'un capital social (relations avec les émigrés londoni qui ont réussi et qui aident à arranger les mariages) et d'un capital culturel (acquis en participant à certaines formes de travail et de mode de vie qui améliorent leur attrait en tant que maris potentiels). Pour les familles installées en Grande-Bretagne, les connections transnationales prennent une autre forme, dans laquelle l'insécurité politique et l'exclusion sociale vécues sur place sont compensées par les investissements économiques et sociaux dans le desh (« le pays »). [source]

The restructuring of London's labour force: migration and shifting opportunities, 1971,91

AREA, Issue 1 2000
Irene Bruegel
Summary The links between migration in and out of London and intergenerational social mobility are explored. Opportunities to enter high-grade jobs are greater in London, but so is the competition. The selectivity of migration explains the high social mobility associated with both in- and out-migration; those who stay in London are much less mobile, be they male or female. Black migrants to London do not share the fast escalator with white migrants, and London stayers come disproportionately from ethnic minority backgrounds. Socially mobile Londoners of both sexes leave far faster than the non-mobile, but women are less often ,creamed off'. Women with high-level jobs rarely leave; when they stay, they are less likely to leave the labour force. The selectivity of both types of migration concentrates ,under-achievement' on London stayers; racial discrimination may contribute to this outcome. [source]