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Small-scale
Terms modified by Small-scale Selected AbstractsREDUCTIONS OF ESCHERICHIA COLI, COLIFORMS, AEROBIC PLATE COUNTS AND CAMPYLOBACTER JEJUNI BY A SMALL-SCALE, HIGH-PRESSURE SYSTEM DEVISED TO CLEAN A MINIATURIZED POULTRY GIBLETS TRANSPORT SYSTEMJOURNAL OF FOOD SAFETY, Issue 4 2009OMAR A. OYARZABAL ABSTRACT The efficacy of using direct high-pressure hot water (60C, 140F) and a quaternary ammonium compound to clean the inside of stainless steel pipe used to transport chicken giblets was evaluated. The giblets were collected from a commercial processing plant and were inoculated with Campylobacter jejuni. The cleaning system was effective in reducing the numbers of inoculated C. jejuni and naturally occurring mesotrophic bacteria (aerobic plate counts) on the inside surface of the stainless steel pipe used to transport the giblets. However, the decreases in naturally occurring Escherichia coli and coliforms were not significant. These results suggest that additional improvements are needed to better disinfect the piping system used to transport giblets to reduce the potential for cross-contamination with C. jejuni and E. coli. The devised cleaning system could be optimized to reduce the use of chemical agents, the cleaning time and the cost of cleaning pipes in poultry processing facilities. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS These experiments suggest that the traditional use of hot water and quaternary ammonium compounds to clean the inside of the piping system used to transport chicken giblets may not be sufficient to reduce the contamination with Campylobacter jejuni and mesotrophic bacteria (aerobic plate count). Poultry processors should be aware of the limitations of cleaning closed piping systems and develop and test high-pressure systems to thoroughly clean the pipes used to transport giblets after processing to avoid potential sources of cross-contamination with C. jejuni and mesotrophic bacteria. [source] Smoking cessation during alcohol treatment: a randomized trial of combination nicotine patch plus nicotine gumADDICTION, Issue 9 2009Ned L. Cooney ABSTRACT Aims The primary aim was to compare the efficacy of smoking cessation treatment using a combination of active nicotine patch plus active nicotine gum versus therapy consisting of active nicotine patch plus placebo gum in a sample of alcohol-dependent tobacco smokers in an early phase of out-patient alcohol treatment. A secondary aim was to determine whether or not there were any carry-over effects of combination nicotine replacement on drinking outcomes. Design Small-scale randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial with 1-year smoking and drinking outcome assessment. Setting Two out-patient substance abuse clinics provided a treatment platform of behavioral alcohol and smoking treatment delivered in 3 months of weekly sessions followed by three monthly booster sessions. Participants Participants were 96 men and women with a diagnosis of alcohol abuse or dependence and smoking 15 or more cigarettes per day. Intervention All participants received open-label transdermal nicotine patches and were randomized to receive either 2 mg nicotine gum or placebo gum under double-blind conditions. Findings Analysis of 1-year follow-up data revealed that patients receiving nicotine patch plus active gum had better smoking outcomes than those receiving patch plus placebo gum on measures of time to smoking relapse and prolonged abstinence at 12 months. Alcohol outcomes were not significantly different across medication conditions. Conclusions Results of this study were consistent with results of larger trials of smokers without alcohol problems, showing that combination therapy (nicotine patch plus gum) is more effective than monotherapy (nicotine patch) for smoking cessation. [source] Severe Deep Moist Convective Storms: Forecasting and MitigationGEOGRAPHY COMPASS (ELECTRONIC), Issue 1 2008David L. Arnold Small-scale (2,20 km) circulations, termed ,severe deep moist convective storms', account for a disproportionate share of the world's insured weather-related losses. Spatial frequency maximums of severe convective events occur in South Africa, India, Mexico, the Caucasus, and Great Plains/Prairies region of North America, where the maximum tornado frequency occurs east of the Rocky Mountains. Interest in forecasting severe deep moist convective systems, especially those that produce tornadoes, dates to 1884 when tornado alerts were first provided in the central United States. Modern thunderstorm and tornado forecasting relies on technology and theory, but in the post-World War II era interest in forecasting has also been driven by public pressure. The forecasting process begins with a diagnostic analysis, in which the forecaster considers the potential of the atmospheric environment to produce severe convective storms (which requires knowledge of the evolving kinematic and thermodynamic fields, and the character of the land surface over which the storms will pass), and the likely character of the storms that may develop. Improvements in forecasting will likely depend on technological advancements, such as the development of phased-array radar systems and finer resolution numerical weather prediction models. Once initiated, the evolution of deep convective storms is monitored by satellite and radar. Mitigation of the hazards posed by severe deep moist convective storms is a three-step process, involving preparedness, response, and recovery. Preparedness implies that risks have been identified and organizations and individuals are familiar with a response plan. Response necessitates that potential events are identified before they occur and the developing threat is communicated to the public. Recovery is a function of the awareness of local, regional, and even national governments to the character and magnitude of potential events in specific locations, and whether or not long-term operational plans are in place at the time of disasters. [source] Fourteen to 17-year-olds' experience of ,risky' drinking,a cross-sectional survey undertaken in south-east EnglandDRUG AND ALCOHOL REVIEW, Issue 3 2004Dr LESTER M. COLEMAN Abstract In the UK, young people's alcohol consumption is considered an important social and health problem, and is the focus of government strategy and intervention. There is widespread concern that many young people are drinking in a ,risky' way. That is, they are often drinking large amounts of alcohol in a single session, in unsupervised locations. This small-scale, quantitative study used a shortened adaptation of the Adolescent Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire (AEQ) to examine 14 , 17-year-olds' experience of ,risky' drinking. The results suggest that a major transition towards first ever drunkenness occurs between the ages of 14 and 15. Young people of this age are more likely to be getting very drunk in unsupervised, and potentially more harmful, locations. It is suggested that using this questionnaire could offer the potential to obtain a rapid and reliable indication of young people's propensity towards possible alcohol-related harm. [source] Dynamics of multiple intertidal bars over semi-diurnal and lunar tidal cycles, North Lincolnshire, EnglandEARTH SURFACE PROCESSES AND LANDFORMS, Issue 10 2008Selma van Houwelingen Abstract Multiple intertidal bars are common features of wave-dominated sandy beaches, yet their short-term (<1 month) and small-scale (<1 km) morphology and dynamics remain poorly understood. This study describes the morphodynamics of multiple intertidal bars in North Lincolnshire, England, during single and lunar tidal cycles under two contrasting conditions , first when significant wave height was <0·5 m and second when significant wave height frequently exceeded 1 m. The relative importance of swash, surf and shoaling processes in determining morphological change was examined using detailed field observations and a numerical model. The beach featured four intertidal bars and both cross-shore and longshore bar morphology evolved during the field investigation, particularly under medium to high wave-energy conditions. Numerical modelling suggests shoaling processes are most common on the seaward two bars under calm wave conditions (Hs < 0·5 m) and that surf zone processes become more common during neap tides and under more energetic (Hs < 0·5 m) conditions. Surf processes dominate the inner two bars, though swash influence increases in a landward direction. The numerical modelling results combined with low tide survey data and high-resolution morphological measurements strongly suggest changes in the intertidal bar morphology are accomplished by surf zone processes rather than by shoaling wave or swash processes. This is because shoaling waves do not induce significant sediment transport to have any morphological effect, whereas swash action generally does not have enough scope to act as the swash zone is much narrower than the surf zone. It was found, however, that the absolute rate of morphological change under swash action and surfzone processes are of similar magnitudes and that swash action may induce a significant amount of local morphological change when the high tide mark is located on the upper bar, making this process important for bar morphodynamics. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Stress-life fatigue assessment of pipelines with plain dentsFATIGUE & FRACTURE OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES, Issue 12 2009S. B. CUNHA ABSTRACT This paper presents a new algorithm for assessing the fatigue life of dented pipelines. The proposed methodology was conceived according to the current stress-life fatigue theory and design practice: it employs S,N curves inferred from tensile test material properties and uses well established methodologies to deal with the stress concentration, the mean stress and the multi-axial stress state that characterizes a dented pipe. Finite element analyses are carried out to model the denting process and to determine the stress concentration factors of several pipe-dent geometries. Using dimensional analysis over the numerical results, a non-dimensional number to characterize the pipe-dent geometry is determined and linear interpolation expressions for the stress concentration factors of dented pipelines are developed. Fatigue tests are conducted with the application of cyclic internal pressure on small-scale dented steel pipe models. In view of the fatigue test results, the more appropriate S,N curve and mean stress criteria are selected. [source] A new method for assessing high-temperature crack growthFATIGUE & FRACTURE OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES, Issue 9 2005A. J. FOOKES ABSTRACT Experimental creep crack growth (CCG) test data are obtained by following standards that characterize CCG rates using the C* parameter. Such data are then used in high-temperature failure assessment procedures. An alternative approach to defect assessment at high-temperature failure is an extension of the R6 failure assessment diagram (FAD). At high temperature, creep toughness, Kcmat, can be estimated from CCG tests and replaces low-temperature toughness in R6. This approach has the advantage that it is not necessary to establish a creep fracture regime, such as small-scale, primary or widespread creep. Also, a new strain-based FAD has been developed, potentially allowing variations of stress and temperature to be accommodated. In this paper, the results of a series of crack growth tests performed on ex-service 316H stainless steel at 550 °C are examined in the light of the limitations imposed by ASTM for CCG testing. The results are then explored in terms of toughness and presented in FADs. [source] Spatial characterization of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal molecular diversity at the submetre scale in a temperate grasslandFEMS MICROBIOLOGY ECOLOGY, Issue 2 2008Daniel L. Mummey Abstract Although arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) form spatially complex communities in terrestrial ecosystems, the scales at which this diversity manifests itself is poorly understood. This information is critical to the understanding of the role of AMF in plant community composition. We examined small-scale (submetre) variability of AMF community composition (terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism fingerprinting) and abundance (extraradical hyphal lengths) in two 1 m2 plots situated in a native grassland ecosystem of western Montana. Extraradical AMF hyphal lengths varied greatly between samples (14,89 m g soil,1) and exhibited spatial structure at scales <30 cm. The composition of AMF communities was also found to exhibit significant spatial autocorrelation, with correlogram analyses suggesting patchiness at scales <50 cm. Supportive of overall AMF community composition analyses, individual AMF ribotypes corresponding to specific phylogenetic groups exhibited distinct spatial autocorrelation. Our results demonstrate that AMF diversity and abundance can be spatially structured at scales of <1 m. Such small-scale heterogeneity in the soil suggests that establishing seedlings may be exposed to very different, location dependent AMF communities. Our results also have direct implications for representative sampling of AMF communities in the field. [source] Bacterial diversity in the breadcrumb sponge Halichondria panicea (Pallas)FEMS MICROBIOLOGY ECOLOGY, Issue 1 2006Antje Wichels Abstract The aim of this study was to investigate the diversity and variability of bacterial communities associated with the marine sponge Halichondria panicea with respect to tissue compartmentalization as well as seasonal and small-scale geographic variation. Diversity of microorganisms in sponges was investigated recently, but work on the variability and succession of associated bacterial communities is rare. Despite some information on Pacific and Mediterranean sponges, it is still uncertain whether bacteria and sponges are specifically associated. In this study, H. panicea specimens were sampled throughout the year at different stations around the island of Helgoland (North Sea) and investigated using molecular tools. The bacterial community associated with H. panicea was diverse, consisting of one denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) band occurring in most ,tissue' samples and additional variable bands. Variability was observed between different sponge fractions (i.e. the aquiferous system and the ,tissue'), sampling locations, and sampling dates. A PCR-DGGE specific for the Roseobacter group of marine Alphaproteobacteria displayed low diversity and a marked similarity between all samples. Phylogenetic analysis also pointed to specific Alphaproteobacteria of the Roseobacter group, which was predominant in most sponge ,tissue' samples. We conclude that H. panicea harbour a specific Roseobacter population with varying bacterial co-populations occurring seasonally or on a small-scale geographically, sometimes even dominating the bacterial community. [source] Detailed determination of smoke gas contents using a small-scale controlled equivalence ratio tube furnace methodFIRE AND MATERIALS, Issue 8 2007Per Blomqvist Abstract A series of tests including seven different materials and products have been conducted using a controlled equivalence ratio tube furnace test method. The main objective of the tests was to determine yields of fire-generated products at defined combustion conditions. The tube furnace test method was set up and run in close agreement with that described in BS 7990:2003. At the time of experimental work the new tube furnace method was in the process of becoming an international standard. It was thus of interest to make an assessment of the capability of the method for determining production yields of important toxic fire products from different types of materials and products. The test series included solid wood, flexible polyurethane (PUR), fire-retarded rigid PUR, a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) carpet, a high-performance data cable with fluorine-containing polymer matrix, a PVC-based cable sheathing material and fire-retarded polyethylene cable insulation material. Duplicate tests were generally conducted at both well-ventilated and vitiated combustion conditions with these materials. The smoke gases produced from the combustion were quantified for inorganic gases by FTIR technique in all tests. A more detailed analysis of the smoke gases was conducted for some of the materials. This extended analysis contained a detailed assessment of organic compounds including, e.g. volatile organic compounds, isocyanates, aldehydes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The analysis further included measurement of the size distribution of fire-generated particles for some of the materials. The quantification of toxic inorganic gases produced by combustion at both well-ventilated and vitiated conditions was successful regarding repeatability and stability. Typical yields for the two fire stages investigated were determined for a wide range of materials and products. The detailed analysis of organic compounds further corroborated that the new tube furnace method can replicate defined combustion conditions. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Isocyanates, aminoisocyanates and amines from fires,a screening of common materials found in buildingsFIRE AND MATERIALS, Issue 6 2003Per Blomqvist Abstract Isocyanates, aminoisocyanates and amines were quantified from the combustion of 24 different materials or products typically found in buildings. Small-scale combustion experiments were conducted in the cone calorimeter, where generally well-ventilated combustion conditions are attained. Measurements were further made in two different full-scale experiments. Isocyanates and amino-compounds were sampled using an impinger-filter sampling system with a reagent solution of di-n-butylamine in toluene. Filter and impinger solution were analysed separately using LC-MS technique. Further the particulate distribution in the smoke gases was determined by impactor technique, and selected gaseous compounds quantified by FTIR. It was found in the small-scale that isocyanates were produced from the majority of the materials tested. The highest concentration was found for glass wool insulation, and further high concentrations were found for PUR products, particleboard, nitrile rubber and melamine. Lower concentrations were found for wood and cable-products. Amino-isocyanates and amines were generally found from PUR products only. The distribution of isocyanates between the particulate- and fluid phases varied for the different materials and a tendency to enrichment of particles was seen for some of the materials. Further, when comparing the potential health hazard between isocyanates and other major fire gases (based on NIOSH IDLH-values) it was found that isocyanates in several cases represented the greatest hazard. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Mathematical modelling of fire development in cable installationsFIRE AND MATERIALS, Issue 4 2001P. Van Hees In 1996 DG XII of the European Commission (Research and Development) approved a 3 year project on the fire performance of electrical cables. Within this FIPEC project, a major part of the work involved correlation and mathematical modelling of flame spread and heat release rate in cable installations. The FIPEC project has developed different levels of testing ranging from a small-scale, cone calorimeter test procedures developed for cables and materials, a full-scale-test procedure based on the IEC 60332-3, but utilizing HRR and SPR measurements, and a real scale test conducted on model cable installations. Links through statistical correlations and mathematical fire modelling between these levels were investigated and the findings are presented in this paper. These links could form the scientific foundations for standards upon which fire performance measurements can be based and for new fire engineering techniques within fire performance based codes. Between each testing level correlation, numerical and mathematical models were performed. All of the models were based on the cone calorimeter test method. The complexity of the models varied from correlation models to advanced physical pyrolysis models which can be used in CFD codes. The results will allow advanced prediction of cable fires in the future. Also a bench mark was established for the prediction of cable performance by means of data obtained from the constituent materials. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] The barefoot ecologist goes fishingFISH AND FISHERIES, Issue 4 2003Jeremy D Prince Abstract Haliotid (abalone) fisheries are comprised of small-scale (<5 km2) stocks and serve as a model for many such fisheries. Extremely valuable to local fishing communities in aggregate, these micro-stocks are myriad and complex to study, monitor, assess and manage. Micro-stocks need assessment and management at local scales to prevent small components from suffering the tragedy of commons. This paper asks how can we ever hope to address the research and management needs of so many small resources? Community-based and territorial rights-based systems may help in sustaining these resources, but servicing the technical needs of many small communities of stakeholders raises problems. A new generation of ,barefoot ecologists' is envisaged to perform this task. [source] The influence of environment and spawning distribution on the survival of anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) larvae in the Bay of Biscay (NE Atlantic) investigated by biophysical simulationsFISHERIES OCEANOGRAPHY, Issue 6 2007GWENHAEL ALLAIN Abstract A growth and survival model of the early life stages was run along virtual drift trajectories tracked in a hydrodynamic model to simulate the annual recruitment process of anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) in the Bay of Biscay (NE Atlantic). These biophysical simulations concerning three different years were analysed in order to investigate the influence of environment and spawning dynamics on the survival of larvae and juveniles. The location of space,time survival windows suggested major environmental mechanisms involved in simulated recruitment variability at the different scales , retention of larvae and juveniles in favourable habitats over the shelf margins and turbulence effects. These small-scale and meso-scale mechanisms were related to the variations in wind direction and intensity during spring and summer. Survival was also variable according to the origin of the drift trajectories, that is spawning distribution in space and time. The observed spawning distribution (according to field surveys) was compared with the spawning distribution that would maximize survival (according to the biophysical model) on a seasonal scale, which revealed factors not considered in the biophysical model (e.g. spawning behaviour of the different age classes). The variation of simulated survival according to spawning distribution was examined on a multi-annual scale and showed a coherent pattern with past and present stock structures. The interaction processes between the population (influence on spawning) and its environment (influence on survival) and its implications on recruitment and stock dynamics are discussed. [source] Structural patterns in coarse gravelriver beds: typology, survey and assessment of the roles of grain size and river regimeGEOGRAFISKA ANNALER SERIES A: PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, Issue 1 2002Lea Wittenberg The concept of river-bed stability as indexed by the occurrence of stable bed forms was examined in humid-temperate perennial streams and in Mediterranean ephemeral streams. The study examined the structural patterns of bed forms and their spatial distribution between temperate-humid and Mediterranean streams. Study sites in Northumberland, UK, and Mt. Carmel, Israel, were selected for their morphometric similarity, despite the contrast in climate, vegetation and hydrological regime. Fieldwork was based on a large number of Wolman grain size distributions and structure measurements along cross-sections at seven sites; Differences in mean grain size of bed structures were estimated using the general linear model (GLM) procedure and Duncan's multiple range test. Based on field evidence, river-bed configurations were divided into structural categories, according to the depositional setting of each measured particle on the river bed. Statistical analysis confirmed former qualitative descriptions of small-scale bed forms. The study identified spatial segregation in bed form distribution. In general, 30,40%of the bed material in the surveyed perennial streams was clustered, in contrast to approximately 10%in the ephemeral counterparts. The sorting index revealed higher values for the perennial streams, namely 2.39,3.59 compared with 1.73,2.07 for the ephemeral counterparts. It is suggested that the degree of sediment sorting and the proportion of clusters are strongly related. Sediment sorting, sediment supply and the hydrological regime explain the mechanism of cluster formation. It is assumed that climate shifts or human interference within river basins might affect the regional characteristic flood hydrograph, and consequently alter the sedimentary character of the river bed. In the case where river bed stability is reduced owing to changes in cluster bed form distribution, rivers that normally do not yield a significant amount of sediment might be subject to notable sedimentation problems. [source] CREATING NARRATIVES OF PLACE AND IDENTITY IN "LITTLE SWEDEN, U.S.A.",GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW, Issue 1 2003STEVEN M. SCHNELL ABSTRACT. In Lindsborg, Kansas,"Little Sweden, U.S.A.",the streets are lined with shops offering "An Adventure in Swedish Tradition," and residents put on numerous festivals throughout the year highlighting Swedish folk customs. Such ethnic tourist towns have become increasingly widespread in the United States over the past thirty years. Tourists tend to perceive these places as towns where folk culture has been passed down unchanged for generations, while academics tend to dismiss residents' ethnicity as crass commercialism. Neither view is correct. Ethnicity and tradition are not static but constantly invented and reinvented. Modern folk ethnicity, among European Americans in particular, is simply the most recent incarnation of this process, one that attempts to recover ties to a specific, small-scale landscape and history. This article explores the changing nature of the narratives of ethnicity and place-based identity that the residents of Lindsborg have used to create a place for themselves in American society. [source] Pathogen safety of manufacturing processes for biological products: special emphasis on KOGENATE® BayerHAEMOPHILIA, Issue 2002D. C. Lee Summary., Manufacturers of human therapeutic proteins derived from biological sources continuously strive to improve the pathogen safety profiles of these products. Efforts to improve pathogen safety margins for these biological products are directed towards several areas within the manufacturing processes including: (a) sourcing and screening of raw materials (b) determining the potential for manufacturing processes to reduce pathogen titres, and (c) incorporating methods designed specifically to remove or inactivate contaminating pathogens. Methods that could potentially reduce pathogen titres are a major focus for many manufacturers. In general, these methods are grouped into two categories, pathogen clearance and pathogen inactivation. Assessments are performed on small-scale, laboratory simulations of the manufacturing process of interest that are spiked with a known amount of a selected pathogen. These studies provide estimates of the potential for a process step to remove or inactivate a particular pathogen. There are several pathogen clearance/inactivation methods that are inherent in manufacturing processes, however, some methods are intentionally incorporated into manufacturing for the sole purpose of reducing putative pathogen titres. Not only are well-known pathogens such as viruses targeted, but also suspected pathogens such as those associated with the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs). The production processes for the isolation of several biological products, including recombinant KOGENATE® Bayer (Kogenate®FS), have been evaluated for the ability to reduce pathogen titres and/or have been designed to incorporate methods for reducing potential pathogen safety risks. Several processing steps with the potential to reduce pathogen titres have been identified. [source] HBM functional imaging analysis contest data analysis in wavelet spaceHUMAN BRAIN MAPPING, Issue 5 2006John A.D. Aston Abstract An analysis of the Functional Imaging Analysis Contest (FIAC) data is presented using spatial wavelet processing. This technique allows the image to be filtered adaptively according to the data itself, rather than relying on a predetermined filter. This adaptive filtering leads to better estimation of the parameters and contrasts in terms of mean squared error. It will be shown that by introducing a slight bias into the estimation, a large reduction in the variance can be achieved, leading to better overall mean squared error estimates. As no single filter needs to be preselected, results containing many scales of information can be found. In the FIAC data, it is shown that both small-scale and large-scale (smoother, more dispersed) effects occur. The combination of small- and large-scale effects detected in the FIAC data would be easy to miss using conventional single filter analysis. Hum Brain Mapp, 2006. © 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] Small-scale production and storage quality of dry-milled degermed maize products for tropical countriesINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, Issue 2 2003Christian Mestres Summary A small-scale, single operation, dry degerminator, originating from Brazil was tested on six maize samples (from France and Mali) at two moisture contents (10 and 15% wb). The yield of brewery maize grits (<1% lipids) was higher for extensively dry (10% mc) and hard grains. It ranged from 50 to 70% for four cultivars, which was equivalent or higher than for industrial plants. The rancidity of the products was controlled by the fat acidity level, which was 40,60 mg KOH 100 g,1db, after 4 months storage of degermed flour. This indicates that degermed products can be stored at 35 °C for up to 6 months without developing significant rancid off-flavour. Thus the Brazilian dry degerminator appears suitable for the treatment of maize in the tropical zone of Africa. [source] The Re-Assessment and Reconstruction of Excavated BoatsINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, Issue 2 2007Seán McGrail In response to papers by John Coates and by Owain Roberts, the author re-evaluates mid- to late-20th-century reconstruction drawings and models of prehistoric sewn-plank boats Ferriby 1 and Brigg 2. He concludes that an impartial and informed group should re-examine all surviving evidence for these boats and then build a small-scale ,as-found' model of each one. After being subjected to criticism, these models could become the basis for generally-agreed reconstruction models of the original form and structure of these two boats. A similar process would be the best way ahead for the Dover sewn-plank boat. © 2007 The Author [source] Human resource development in remote island communities: an evaluation of tour-guide training in VanuatuINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCH, Issue 2 2002Rosemary Black Abstract About 30% of visitors to Vanuatu visit the outer islands, where ecotourism has recently emerged as a small-scale but significant activity. In the face of increasing competition from comparable Asia,Pacific destinations, there has been pressure on tourism operators and the Vanuatu Government to improve product quality through mechanisms such as the development of high-quality tours. One way to enhance product quality is through the provision of appropriate professional training for tourism sector employees, including local tour guides. The paper outlines a tour-guide training programme delivered on the outer islands, which received financial assistance from several foreign aid agencies. The programme is an instructive example of an attempt to implement a human resource strategy in a developing country arising from the recommendations of a national tourism masterplan that sought the active involvement of international funding agencies in the implementation phase. The paper evaluates the effectiveness of the training programme and outlines the challenges of programme delivery. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Co-operatives in southern Spain: their development in the rural tourism sector in AndalucíaINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCH, Issue 3 2001Michael Barke Abstract This paper examines the characteristics of a number of recently established rural tourism co-operatives in Andalucía, southern Spain against the background of the theory of co-operatives as economic organisations. The origins and composition of the co-operatives are examined, their local impact, their policies on employment and remuneration, and their internal management characteristics. Few of the businesses in the sample appear to possess the characteristics of the ,ideal type' of co-operative identified in the literature. Although small-scale, beneficial impacts may be identified within their localities, these appear to be no different to those associated with any small business organisation in the rural tourism sector. Furthermore, it is concluded that their prospects for developing genuine alternative forms of employment structures are not strong, partly owing to the circumstances of their foundation and partly because of the very nature of rural tourism itself, where extreme seasonality imposes a very specific labour regime. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] The Participant's Dilemma: Bringing Conflict and Representation Back InINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN AND REGIONAL RESEARCH, Issue 3 2010DEBBIE BECHER Abstract Innovations in democratic participation involving small-scale, long-term focused governing bodies have increased citizen influence in poor American urban neighborhoods. Scholars have described these emerging forms of participation as essentially cooperative in spirit and directly democratic in nature. I argue that the new participatory regimes continue to involve social processes of representation and conflict inherent to more traditional forms of engagement. Participants move dynamically between cooperation and conflict and between participating as individuals and representing constituencies. This article presents a careful study of how a single decision developed and was implemented in such a participatory experiment, the American Street Empowerment Zone in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA, between 1994 and 2008. Archival and interview data support the general perspective shared by articles in this symposium , that participation involves dynamic movement between conflict and cooperation. This article suggests that the durability of the participatory regime depends not on the level of conflict but on how participants move between displaying identification with either government or their community constituents. This article uses the concept of intermediation to describe this kind of dynamism and to reflect the flexibility a participatory structure must nurture to endure. Résumé Les innovations en matière de participation démocratique qui impliquent des organes de gouvernement ,uvrant à petite échelle et à long terme ont accru l'influence des habitants dans les quartiers urbains pauvres américains. D'après certains auteurs, ces formes nouvelles de participation sont, dans l'esprit, essentiellement coopératives et, par nature, directement démocratique. Il est exposé ici que les nouveaux régimes participatifs font encore intervenir des processus sociaux de représentation et de conflit propres à des formes d'engagement plus traditionnelles. Les participants oscillent de manière dynamique entre coopération et conflit, et entre participation en tant qu'individus et représentation collective. Cet article présente une étude minutieuse de la manière dont une décision a étéélaborée et mise en ,uvre dans le cadre d'une expérience participative de ce type, ,American Street Empowerment Zone'à Philadelphie (Pennsylvanie), de 1994 à 1998. Des données issues d'archives et d'entretiens corroborent la perspective générale commune aux articles de ce symposium: la participation implique un mouvement dynamique entre conflit et coopération. L'article suggère que la pérennité du régime participatif dépend, non pas du niveau de conflit, mais de la façon dont les participants alternent dans leur manifestation d'une identification soit au gouvernement soit aux membres de leur communauté. Le concept d'intermédiation est utilisé pour décrire cette forme de dynamique et pour traduire la souplesse que doit garder une structure participative pour perdurer. [source] Investigation of multiphase hydrogenation in a catalyst-trap microreactorJOURNAL OF CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY & BIOTECHNOLOGY, Issue 3 2009S. McGovern BACKGROUND: Multiphase hydrogenation plays a critical role in the pharmaceutical industry. A significant portion of the reaction steps in a typical fine chemical synthesis are catalytic hydrogenations, generally limited by resistances to mass and heat transport. To this end, the small-scale and large surface-to-volume ratios of microreactor technology would greatly benefit chemical processing in the pharmaceutical and other industries. A silicon microreactor has been developed to investigate mass transfer in a catalytic hydrogenation reaction. The reactor design is such that solid catalyst is suspended in the reaction channel by an arrangement of catalyst traps. The design supports the use of commercial catalyst and allows control of pressure drop across the bed by engineering the packing density. RESULTS: This paper discusses the design and operation of the reactor in the context of the liquid-phase hydrogenation of o-nitroanisole to o-anisidine. A two-phase ,flow map' is generated across a range of conditions depicting three flow regimes, termed gas-dominated, liquid-dominated, and transitional, all with distinctly different mass transfer behavior. Conversion is measured across the flow map and then reconciled against the mass transfer characteristics of the prevailing flow regime. The highest conversion is achieved in the transitional flow regime, where competition between phases induces the most favorable gas,liquid mass transfer. CONCLUSION: The results are used to associate a mass transfer coefficient with each flow regime to quantify differences in performance. This reactor architecture may be useful for catalyst evaluation through rapid screening, or in large numbers as an alternative to macro-scale production reactors. Copyright © 2008 Society of Chemical Industry [source] Production of L -methionine by immobilized pellets of Aspergillus oryzae in a packed bed reactorJOURNAL OF CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY & BIOTECHNOLOGY, Issue 5 2002Ying-Jin Yuan Abstract Production of L -methionine by immobilized pellets of Aspergillus oryzae in a packed bed reactor was investigated. Based on the determination of relative enzymatic activity in the immobilized pellets, the optimum pH and temperature for the resolution reaction were 8.0 and 60,°C, respectively. The effects of substrate concentration on the resolution reaction were also investigated and the kinetic constants (Km and Vm) of immobilized pellets were found to be 7.99,mmol,dm,3 and 1.38,mmol,dm,3 h,1, respectively. The maximum substrate concentration for the resolution reaction without inhibition was 0.2,mol,dm,3. The L -methionine conversion rate reached 94% and 78% when substrate concentrations were 0.2 and 0.4,mol,dm,3, respectively, at a flow rate of 7.5,cm3,h,1 using the small-scale packed bed reactor developed. The half-life of the L -aminoacylase in immobilized pellets was 70 days in continuous operation. All the results obtained in this paper exhibit a practical potential of using immobilized pellets of Aspergillus oryzae in the production of L -methionine. © 2002 Society of Chemical Industry [source] Detecting local adaptation in widespread grassland species , the importance of scale and local plant communityJOURNAL OF ECOLOGY, Issue 6 2006ARMIN BISCHOFF Summary 1Adaptation of plant populations to local environments has been shown in many species but local adaptation is not always apparent and spatial scales of differentiation are not well known. In a reciprocal transplant experiment we tested whether: (i) three widespread grassland species are locally adapted at a European scale; (ii) detection of local adaptation depends on competition with the local plant community; and (iii) local differentiation between neighbouring populations from contrasting habitats can be stronger than differentiation at a European scale. 2Seeds of Holcus lanatus, Lotus corniculatus and Plantago lanceolata from a Swiss, Czech and UK population were sown in a reciprocal transplant experiment at fields that exhibit environmental conditions similar to the source sites. Seedling emergence, survival, growth and reproduction were recorded for two consecutive years. 3The effect of competition was tested by comparing individuals in weeded monocultures with plants sown together with species from the local grassland community. To compare large-scale vs. small-scale differentiation, a neighbouring population from a contrasting habitat (wet-dry contrast) was compared with the ,home' and ,foreign' populations. 4In P. lanceolata and H. lanatus, a significant home-site advantage was detected in fitness-related traits, thus indicating local adaptation. In L. corniculatus, an overall superiority of one provenance was found. 5The detection of local adaptation depended on competition with the local plant community. In the absence of competition the home-site advantage was underestimated in P. lanceolata and overestimated in H. lanatus. 6A significant population differentiation between contrasting local habitats was found. In some traits, this small-scale was greater than large-scale differentiation between countries. 7Our results indicate that local adaptation in real plant communities cannot necessarily be predicted from plants grown in weeded monocultures and that tests on the relationship between fitness and geographical distance have to account for habitat-dependent small-scale differentiation. Considering the strong small-scale differentiation, a local provenance from a different habitat may not be the best choice in ecological restoration if distant populations from a more similar habitat are available. [source] Frequency-dependent predation and maintenance of prey polymorphismJOURNAL OF EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY, Issue 6 2006S. MERILAITA Abstract In positive frequency-dependent predation, predation risk of an individual prey correlates positively with the frequency of that prey type. In a number of small-scale experiments individual predators have shown frequency-dependent behaviour, often leading to the conclusion that a population of such predators could maintain prey polymorphism. Using simulations, I studied the dynamics of frequency-dependent predation and prey polymorphism. The model suggests that persistence of prey polymorphism decreases with increasing number of predators that show frequency-dependent behaviour, questioning conclusions about polymorphism based on experiments with few predators. In addition, prey population size, prey crypsis, difference in crypsis between prey morphs and the way the behaviour was adjusted affected the persistence of polymorphism. Under some circumstances prey population remained polymorphic for a shorter time under frequency-dependent than under frequency-independent predation. This suggests that although positive frequency-dependent predator behaviour may maintain prey polymorphism, it is not a sufficient condition for persistent prey polymorphism. [source] THE LACUSTRINE LIANGJIALOU FAN IN THE DONGYING DEPRESSION, EASTERN CHINA: DEEP-WATER RESERVOIR SANDSTONES IN A NON-MARINE RIFT BASINJOURNAL OF PETROLEUM GEOLOGY, Issue 4 2005Jin Qiang A lacustrine fan covering an area of about 175sq. km has been identified in the Liangjialou area in the SW of the Dongying Depression, a Tertiary non-marine rift basin in eastern China. Fluvial and deltaic sandstones are established reservoir rocks in the basin, and the deep-water sandstones of the fan succession, which are assigned to Member 3 of the lower Tertiary Shahejie Formation, are also thought to have important reservoir potential. Available data for this study included some 800m of core from 16 wells, well-log data from 426 wells, and 220 sq.km of 3D surveys together with well-test and other production data. From geomorphological reconstructions of the fan, we distinguish first-order (major) fan channels from second-order branched and more distal tip channels. Crevasse splays and overbank shales occur between channels, and sandstone lobes were deposited at channel mouths. Conglomeratic sandstones deposited in major channels are probably the most promising reservoir facies (average porosity c. 20%; average permeability > 1D). Fan construction took place during a single complete cycle of lake level variation which was composed of several sub-cycles. During initial highstand conditions, the fan was dominated by small-scale branched and tip channels and intervening sandy lobes. Fan size increased rapidly during the following lowstand, and then decreased during the ensuing highstand. [source] WATERSHED SCALING EFFECT ON BASE FLOW NITRATE, VALLEY AND RIDGE PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCE,JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION, Issue 5 2001Bruce D. Lindsey ABSTRACT: A study of stream base flow and NO3 -N concentration was conducted simultaneously in 51 subwatersheds within the 116-square-kilometer watershed of East Mahantango Creek near Klingerstown, Pennsylvania. The study was designed to test whether measurable results of processes and observations within the smaller watersheds were similar to or transferable to a larger scale. Ancillary data on land use were available for the small and large watersheds. Although the source of land-use data was different for the small and large watersheds, comparisons showed that the differences in the two land-use data sources were minimal. A land use-based water-quality model developed for the small-scale 7.3-square-kilometer watershed for a previous study accurately predicted NO3 -N concentrations from sampling in the same watershed. The water-quality model was modified and, using the imagery-based land use, was found to accurately predict NO3 -N concentrations in the subwatersheds of the large-scale 116-square-kilometer watershed as well. Because the model accurately predicts NO3 -N concentrations at small and large scales, it is likely that in second-order streams and higher, discharge of water and NO3 -N is dominated by flow from smaller first-order streams, and the contribution of ground-water discharge to higher order streams is minimal at the large scale. [source] Unravelling causal components of the Ordovician Radiation: the Builth Inlier (central Wales) as a case studyLETHAIA, Issue 2 2008JOSEPH P. BOTTING Hypotheses about the causes of biodiversification during the Ordovician have been focused in three main areas: tectonic activity and nutrient supply, palaeogeography, and ecological escalation. There is as yet no consensus on mechanisms, and it is unclear whether it is better to study the patterns at local or regional scales. By applying ecological knowledge to the available palaeontological information, it can be shown that neither tectonic nor palaeogeographic effects could account for the permanence of the diversity rise, in the absence of elements of ecological escalation. However, it may be possible to identify trigger mechanisms resulting in enhanced speciation or reduced extinction. Areas of local diversity increase should be distinguished from speciation centres. An ongoing study of the Middle Ordovician Builth-Llandrindod Inlier of central Wales, conducted over 10 years, has identified elements of all three of the above categories of causal mechanisms affecting local diversity. This implies that the patterns of causal relationship and diversification are complex even at very local scales, and at this stage we should not anticipate a clear correlation of global diversity with any single factor. More data are needed from small-scale but intensive studies before we can generalize about the causal mechanisms of the Ordovician Radiation. [source] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||