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Historical Background (historical + background)
Selected AbstractsEthics of studies involving human volunteers I. Historical backgroundINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF COSMETIC SCIENCE, Issue 6 2007P. A. Carson The evaluation of personal products using panels of human volunteers is crucial to the continued development of the industry. Nowadays, however, it is increasingly important to ensure that such studies are both safe for the participants and are ethical. As a means of defining general rules for judging and justifying the ethics of human testing, historical milestones in the development of human experimentation are given. While most experience originates from biomedical research, findings help establish standards of ethical review of non-therapeutic human testing used in the cosmetics industry. [source] Isthmus organizer for mesencephalon and metencephalonDEVELOPMENT GROWTH & DIFFERENTIATION, Issue 2008Harukazu Nakamura The vertebrate central nervous system is elaborated from a simple neural tube. Brain vesicles formation is the first sign of regionalization. Classical transplantation using quail and chick embryos revealed that the mesencephalon,metencephalon boundary (isthmus) functions as an organizer of the mesencephalon and metencephalon. Fgf8 is accepted as a main organizing molecule of the isthmus. Strong Fgf8 signal activates the Ras-ERK signaling pathway to differentiate the cerebellum. In this review, the historical background of the means of identifying the isthmus organizer and the molecular mechanisms of signal transduction for tectum and cerebellum differentiation is reviewed. [source] Informed Consent and Ethical Issues in Military Medical ResearchACADEMIC EMERGENCY MEDICINE, Issue 11 2005John McManus MD Abstract Informed consent in military research shares many of the same fundamental principles and regulations that govern civilian biomedical research. In fact, much of modern research ethics is grounded in events that occurred in the context of war or government-sponsored research. Despite these similarities and common origins, research in the military has additional requirements designed to preserve service members' informed consent rights. The special nature of the superior,subordinate relationship in the military necessitates careful protections to avoid perceptions of coercion or undue influence on a military subject. Additionally, current legal and regulatory requirements for advanced informed consent significantly restrict the flexibility of the military to conduct research using waiver of consent. This has implications on the ability of the nation to develop effective medical treatments for the global war on terrorism. Nevertheless, work is under way to realign defense research policy with the norms of civilian biomedical practice. Future directions include the adoption of waivers for military emergency research, and the cautious introduction of human subject studies on the battlefield. This paper discusses historical background, regulatory differences, and concerns and challenges of some of these regulatory differences for research personnel that apply to informed consent and waiver of said informed consent for emergency research conducted by the U.S. military. [source] History and Background of Nebraska's School-based Teacher-led Assessment and Reporting System (STARS)EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENT: ISSUES AND PRACTICE, Issue 2 2004Pat Roschewski Nebraska's approach to standards, assessment, and accountability, the School-based Teacher-led Assessment and Reporting System (STARS) is based upon local control and the belief that classrooms and teachers must be at the heart of student learning and accountability. STARS relies on locally-developed assessment systems to accurately measure and report student performance on state content standards. Each local system in Nebraska's 500+ school districts is reviewed for technical quality, and districts are publicly rated for assessment quality and student performance. The purpose of this article is to establish the historical background. [source] Betaine Adducts of N-Heterocyclic Carbenes: Synthesis, Properties, and ReactivityEUROPEAN JOURNAL OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, Issue 13 2009Lionel Delaude Abstract N-Heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) form stable zwitterionicadducts with a range of heteroallenes, ketenes, and allenes. Although the first representatives of this class of inner salts were first investigated as far back as the 1960s, they have enjoyed a sustained interest from the chemical community over the years. Depending on the nature of their anionic moiety, NHC betaines display a very broad palette of reactivities and have found applications in various fields of organic synthesis and catalysis. In this Microreview, the synthesis, properties, and reactivity of NHC betaines are surveyed. The NHCs under consideration include ylidenes derived from imidazole, benzimidazole, imidazoline, thiazole, or triazole, and the heteroallenes investigated so far are carbon dioxide, carbon disulfide, isocyanates, isothiocyanates, and their selenium analogues. A historical background is provided for each type of adduct under consideration, but emphasis is placed mainly on developments that have appeared in the literature within the past few years. (© Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 69451 Weinheim, Germany, 2009) [source] Ultra-rapid opiate detoxification: from clinical applications to basic scienceADDICTION BIOLOGY, Issue 2 2003EMMANUEL STREEL Rapid or ultra-rapid opiate detoxification has become increasingly popular in both private and public addiction centres. These techniques seem to facilitate the transfer of opiate-dependent patients from opiate agonist to opiate antagonist. Despite the probable complex neuropharmacological aspects involved in these procedures, their development over nearly three decades is notable for the almost complete absence of clinically relevant animal studies. This paper discusses the historical background of this occurrence, and reviews the small number of animal studies that have been conducted. Many discussions and arguments about the techniques seem to underscore their true purpose, which is not "simply to detoxify" opiate-addicted patients but to initiate long-term management with naltrexone. For this reason, it may be better to conceptualize these techniques not as "rapid detoxification" but as "rapid antagonist induction". [source] THE BIOLOGY OF SPECIATIONEVOLUTION, Issue 2 2010James M. Sobel Since Darwin published the "Origin," great progress has been made in our understanding of speciation mechanisms. The early investigations by Mayr and Dobzhansky linked Darwin's view of speciation by adaptive divergence to the evolution of reproductive isolation, and thus provided a framework for studying the origin of species. However, major controversies and questions remain, including: When is speciation nonecological? Under what conditions does geographic isolation constitute a reproductive isolating barrier? and How do we estimate the "importance" of different isolating barriers? Here, we address these questions, providing historical background and offering some new perspectives. A topic of great recent interest is the role of ecology in speciation. "Ecological speciation" is defined as the case in which divergent selection leads to reproductive isolation, with speciation under uniform selection, polyploid speciation, and speciation by genetic drift defined as "nonecological." We review these proposed cases of nonecological speciation and conclude that speciation by uniform selection and polyploidy normally involve ecological processes. Furthermore, because selection can impart reproductive isolation both directly through traits under selection and indirectly through pleiotropy and linkage, it is much more effective in producing isolation than genetic drift. We thus argue that natural selection is a ubiquitous part of speciation, and given the many ways in which stochastic and deterministic factors may interact during divergence, we question whether the ecological speciation concept is useful. We also suggest that geographic isolation caused by adaptation to different habitats plays a major, and largely neglected, role in speciation. We thus provide a framework for incorporating geographic isolation into the biological species concept (BSC) by separating ecological from historical processes that govern species distributions, allowing for an estimate of geographic isolation based upon genetic differences between taxa. Finally, we suggest that the individual and relative contributions of all potential barriers be estimated for species pairs that have recently achieved species status under the criteria of the BSC. Only in this way will it be possible to distinguish those barriers that have actually contributed to speciation from those that have accumulated after speciation is complete. We conclude that ecological adaptation is the major driver of reproductive isolation, and that the term "biology of speciation," as proposed by Mayr, remains an accurate and useful characterization of the diversity of speciation mechanisms. [source] White pines, Ribes, and blister rust: a review and synthesisFOREST PATHOLOGY, Issue 3-4 2010Brian W. Geils Summary For over a century, white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola) has linked white pines (Strobus) with currants and gooseberries (Ribes) in a complex and serious disease epidemic in Asia, Europe, and North America. Because of ongoing changes in climate, societal demands for forests and their amenities, and scientific advances in genetics and proteomics, our current understanding and management of the white pine blister rust pathosystem has become outdated. Here, we present a review and synthesis of international scope on the biology and management of blister rust, white pines, Ribes, and other hosts. In this article, we provide a geographical and historical background, describe the taxonomy and life cycle of the rust, discuss pathology and ecology, and introduce a series of invited papers. These review articles summarize the literature on white pines, Ribes, and blister rust with respect to their status, threats, and management through genetics and silviculture. Although the principal focus is on North America, the different epidemics in Europe and Asia are also described. In the final article, we discuss several of the key observations and conclusions from the preceding review articles and identify prudent actions for research and management of white pine blister rust. [source] The International Criminal Court: Reforming the Politics of International JusticeGOVERNMENT AND OPPOSITION, Issue 1 2003Spyros Economides The International Criminal Court (ICC) came into effect on 1 July 2002. This article gives an account of the historical background to the ICC and an overview of the Court's Statute, remit and powers. It is argued that the ICC is a highly politicized legal institution which will only be effective through inter-state cooperation. Despite its lengthy historical antecedents and legal precedents, prudence suggests that , due to the nature of international politics , the establishment of the ICC should be viewed as the beginning of a cumulative process of reforming the politics of international justice rather than the end of a process of transformation in international law. [source] 1. NARRATIVE EXPLANATION AND ITS MALCONTENTSHISTORY AND THEORY, Issue 1 2008DAVID CARR ABSTRACT In this paper I look at narrative as a mode of explanation and at various ways in which the explanatory value of narrative has been criticized. I begin with the roots of narrative explanation in everyday action, experience, and discourse, illustrating it with the help of a simple example. I try to show how narrative explanation is transformed and complicated by circumstances that take us beyond the everyday into such realms as jurisprudence, journalism, and history. I give an account of why narrative explanation normally satisfies us, and how or in what sense it actually explains. Then I consider how narrative is challenged and rejected as a mode of explanation in many scientific and other contexts and why attempts are made to replace it with something else. I try to evaluate the nature and sources of these challenges, and I describe this controversy over narrative against the historical background of its emergence. My paper ends with a pragmatic defense of narrative explanation against these challenges. [source] Outcomes research: what is it and why does it matter?INTERNAL MEDICINE JOURNAL, Issue 3 2003M. Jefford Abstract Outcomes research is a broad umbrella term without a consistent definition. However it tends to describe research that is concerned with the effectiveness of public-health interventions and health services; that is, the outcomes of these services. Attention is frequently focused on the affected individual , with measures such as quality of life and preferences , but outcomes research may also refer to effectiveness of health-care delivery, with measures such as cost-effectiveness, health status and disease burden. The present review details the historical background of outcomes research to reveal the origins of its diversity. The value and relevance of outcomes research, commonly employed research techniques and examples of recent publications in the area are also discussed. (Intern Med J 2003; 33: 110,118) [source] Traditional Management Systems, Poverty and Change in the Arid Zone Fisheries of Northern NigeriaJOURNAL OF AGRARIAN CHANGE, Issue 1 2005ARTHUR E. NEILAND This paper, based on fieldwork results, explores traditional management systems (TMS) in the arid zone fisheries of north-eastern Nigeria with particular reference to their impact on rural poverty. The first section provides a historical background by tracing the evolution of the TMS since the nineteenth century, with reference to government policy on fisheries management and poverty alleviation. The second gives an overview of TMS, including definitions, distribution, principal objectives, regulatory mechanisms and the impact of TMS on the performance of the fisheries and on the livelihoods of rural people. The third considers the perceptions and attitudes of the fishing communities with regards to the fisheries and TMS. The paper concludes, paradoxically, that while TMS provide a basis for the sustainable livelihoods of many fishing people, they also reflect and enforce the social positions of the rich and powerful members of society who oversee them, at the expense of the poor. In the future, poverty alleviation in fisheries will need to incorporate both sectoral and non-sectoral strategies , dealing with the existing ,paradox of TMS' by encouraging appropriate institutional changes and community development, and recognizing the importance of employment creation in other sectors of the economy as a source of alternative income. [source] Emotional Life in Three DimensionsJOURNAL OF APPLIED PHILOSOPHY, Issue 4 2008WILLIAM CHARLTON abstract,I first summarise Martha Nussbaum's theory of emotion and place it against its historical background. Borrowing distinctions from Plato I then argue that the emotions discussed in Hiding From Humanity affect us primarily as social beings, not as individuals, and suggest modifying and educating them by social means. [source] Thalidomide as an anti-cancer agentJOURNAL OF CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR MEDICINE, Issue 2 2002S. Kumar Abstract Thalidomide is a glutamic acid derivative initially introduced as a sedative hypnotic nearly forty years ago. It was withdrawn following numerous reports linking it to a characteristic pattern of congenital abnormalities in babies born to mothers who used the drug for morning sickness. It has gradually been re-introduced into clinical practice over the past two decades, albeit under strict regulation, since it was found to be useful in the management of erythema nodosum leprosum and HIV wasting syndrome. Recognition of its anti-angiogenic effect led to its evaluation in the treatment of various malignancies, where angiogenesis has been shown to play an important role. Numerous clinical trials done over the past four years have confirmed the significant anti-myeloma activity of this drug. It has also shown promise in preliminary trials in the treatment of a variety of different malignant diseases. The mechanisms of its antineoplastic effects continue to be the focus of ongoing research. It has become clear that even though its anti angiogenic effects play a significant role in the anti-tumor activity, there are other properties of this drug which are responsible as well. It also possesses anti-TNF alpha activity, which has led to its evaluation in several inflammatory states. In this concise review, we briefly describe the historical background and pharmacological aspects of this drug. We have concisely reviewed the current knowledge regarding mechanisms of its anti-neoplastic activity and the results of various clinical trials in oncology. [source] Developing cultural competence in working with Korean immigrant familiesJOURNAL OF COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY, Issue 2 2006Irene J. Kim The authors provide an in-depth examination of the historical background, cultural values, family roles, and community contexts of Korean Americans as an aid to both researchers and clinicians in developing cultural competence with this particular group. First, the concept of cultural competence is defined. A brief history of Korean immigration patterns to the United States and demographic information about Korean Americans are reviewed. Second, Korean cultural values, family structure, and family roles are examined as they impact relationships in research and clinical contexts. Three indigenous concepts (cf. L. Kim, 1992) that may be useful in developing cultural competence include haan (suppressed anger), jeong (strong feeling of kinship), and noon-chi (ability to evaluate social situations through implicit cues). Clinical case examples and accounts from a community-based research perspective illustrate these cultural values. Third, important community resources in the Korean American context are highlighted. Links between cultural competence and "ecological pragmatism" (Kelly, Azelton, Burzette, & Mock, 1994) are discussed. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [source] Issues in New Political Economy: An OverviewJOURNAL OF ECONOMIC SURVEYS, Issue 5 2000Stuart Sayer A brief overview of the historical background, nature, and rapid growth in volume and scope of new political economy since the early 1980s is provided. the paper continues with some general reflections on the strengths and weaknesses of the new political economy approach, illustrated by the other contributions to this special issue of the Journal of Economic Surveys. The final Section summarises these contributions. [source] Natural killer cell-based immunotherapy in cancer: current insights and future prospectsJOURNAL OF INTERNAL MEDICINE, Issue 2 2009T. Sutlu Abstract. As our understanding of the molecular mechanisms governing natural killer (NK) cell activity increases, their potential in cancer immunotherapy is growing increasingly prominent. This review analyses the currently available preclinical and clinical data regarding NK cell-based immunotherapeutic approaches in cancer starting from a historical background and an overview of molecular mechanisms taking part in NK cell responses. The status of NK cells in cancer patients, currently investigated clinical applications such as in vivo modulation of NK cell activity, ex vivo purification/expansion and adoptive transfer as well as future possibilities such as genetic modifications are discussed in detail. [source] Review: physical chemistry of solid dispersionsJOURNAL OF PHARMACY AND PHARMACOLOGY: AN INTERNATI ONAL JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCE, Issue 12 2009Sandrien Janssens Abstract Objectives With poorly soluble drug candidates emerging in the drug discovery pipeline, the importance of the solid dispersion formulation approach is increasing. This strategy includes complete removal of drug crystallinity, and molecular dispersion of the poorly soluble compound in a hydrophilic polymeric carrier. The potential of this technique to increase oral absorption and hence bioavailability is enormous. Nevertheless, some issues have to be considered regarding thermodynamic instability, as well in supersaturated solutions that are formed upon dissolution as in the solid state. Key findings After a brief discussion on the historical background of solid dispersions and their current role in formulation, an overview will be given on the physical chemistry and stability of glass solutions as they form supersaturated solutions, and during their shelf life. Conclusions Thorough understanding of these aspects will elicit conscious evaluation of carrier properties and eventually facilitate rational excipient selection. Thus, full exploitation of the solid dispersion strategy may provide an appropriate answer to drug attrition due to low aqueous solubility in later stages of development. [source] "The principles of rational agriculture" by Albrecht Daniel Thaer (1752,1828).JOURNAL OF PLANT NUTRITION AND SOIL SCIENCE, Issue 6 2003An approach to the sustainability of cropping systems at the beginning of the 19th century Abstract The identification of quantitative fertility indicators for evaluating the sustainability of cropping and farming systems has become a major issue. This question has been extensively studied by the German agronomist Albrecht Daniel Thaer at the beginning of the 19h century. In this paper Thaer's work is set in its historical background, from the end of the 16th century (Palissy, 1580) to the middle of the 19th century (Liebig, 1840). Then the paper focuses on Thaer's quantitative and complex fertility scale (expressed in "fertility degrees"), which was based on soil properties, on the requirement of nutrients by plants, and on the cropping system (including crop rotation). Thaer expressed soil fertility and economic results as a function of rye production in "scheffel of rye per journal" (ca. 200 kg per hectare). He also proposed a scale to describe the intrinsic fertility of soil. Thaer used this approach to assess the effect of major German cropping systems on soil fertility. He applied it to eight theoretical systems and nine existing systems in a true modeling approach. Thaer completed the fertility evaluation for the nine existing systems with a detailed economical analysis commenting the limits and potentialities of each system. Thaer's approach was used with success during half a century as it combined numerous empirical findings on soils and fertilization with organic substances in a sophisticated model. Unfortunately and despite effective practical applications, the scientific foundations of Thaer's "Humus Theory" proved definitively false as soon as 1840 when Sprengel and Liebig published on mineral nutrition of plants. Thaer's work deserves to be rediscovered since it approaches the modern issue of the sustainability of cropping and farming systems. "Grundsätze der rationalen Landwirtschaft" von Albrecht Daniel Thaer (1752,1828). Ein Ansatz zur Nachhaltigkeit von Anbausystemen zu Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts Die Identifizierung von quantitativen Fruchtbarkeitsindikatoren, mit denen die Nachhaltigkeit von Anbau- und Bewirtschaftungssystemen evaluiert werden kann, ist ein wichtiges Thema geworden. Diese Frage wurde zu Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts von dem deutschen Agronomen Albrecht Daniel Thaer intensiv untersucht. In diesem Beitrag wird die Arbeit von Thaer in ihren historischen Zusammenhang gestellt, d.h. vom Ende des 16. Jahrhunderts (Palissy (1580)) bis zur Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts (Liebig (1840)). Anschließend wird Thaers komplexe quantitative Fruchtbarkeitsskala (ausgedrückt in "Fruchtbarkeitsgraden") vorgestellt, die auf Bodeneigenschaften, dem Nährstoffbedarf der Pflanzen und dem Anbausystem (einschließlich der Fruchtfolge) basierte. Thaer formulierte die Bodenfruchtbarkeit und ökonomische Resultate einer Kultur oder einer Fruchtfolge in "Scheffel Roggen pro Morgen" (ca. 200 kg pro Hektar). Thaer schlug auch eine Skala vor, um den inhärenten Wert des Bodens zu beschreiben. Er benutzte diesen Ansatz, um die Auswirkungen von in Deutschland verbreiteten Anbausystemen auf die Bodenfruchtbarkeit zu bestimmen. Er wandte diesen Ansatz auf acht theoretische und neun reale Systeme an, d.h. mit einem echten Modellierungs-Ansatz. Er vervollständigte die Beurteilung der Fruchtbarkeit der neun existierenden Systeme mit einer detaillierten wirtschaftlichen Analyse, wobei er die Grenzen und die Leistungsfähigkeit jedes Systems kommentierte. Thaers Ansatz wurde ein halbes Jahrhundert lang mit Erfolg benutzt, da er zahlreiche empirische Beobachtungen über Böden und Düngung mit organischen Substanzen in einem komplexen Modell vereinigt. Trotz erfolgreicher praktischer Anwendung erwiesen sich die wissenschaftlichen Grundlagen von Thaers "Humustheorie" schon 1840 definitiv als falsch, als Sprengel und Liebig ihre Arbeiten über die mineralische Ernährung der Pflanzen veröffentlichten. Thaers Werk verdient es, neu entdeckt zu werden, da es die aktuelle Frage nach der Nachhaltigkeit von Anbau- und Bewirtschaftungssystemen behandelt. [source] Prurigo nodularis of Hyde: an updateJOURNAL OF THE EUROPEAN ACADEMY OF DERMATOLOGY & VENEREOLOGY, Issue 2 2000José Wilson Accioly-Filho Abstract Prurigo nodularis of Hyde is an unusual disorder of unknown aetiology characterized by extremely pruritic nodules with well defined clinical and histopathological aspects. The literature on this disease is reviewed, focusing on the historical background, aetiology, pathogenesis, histopathology and ultrastructure, clinical aspects, differential diagnosis and therapeutic alternatives. [source] Is there a problem with mathematical psychology in the eighteenth century?JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES, Issue 4 2006A fresh look at Kant's old argument Common opinion ascribes to Immanuel Kant the view that psychology cannot become a science properly so called, because it cannot be mathematized. It is equally common to claim that this reflects the state of the art of his times; that the quantification of the mind was not achieved during the eighteenth century, while it was so during the nineteenth century; or that Kant's so-called "impossibility claim" was refuted by nineteenth-century developments, which in turn opened one path for psychology to become properly scientific. These opinions are often connected, but they are misguided nevertheless. In Part I, I show how the issue of a quantification of the mind was discussed before Kant, and I analyze the philosophical considerations both of pessimistic and optimistic authors. This debate reveals a certain progress, although it remains ultimately undecided. In Part II, I present actual examples of measuring the mind in the eighteenth century and analyze their presuppositions. Although these examples are limited in certain ways, the common view that there was no such measurement is wrong. In Part III, I show how Kant's notorious " impossibility claim" has to be viewed against its historical background. He not only accepts actual examples of a quantitative treatment of the mind, but also takes steps toward an explanation of their possibility. Thus, he does not advance the claim that the mind as such cannot be mathematized. His claim is directed against certain philosophical assumptions about the mind, assumptions shared by a then-dominating, strongly introspectionist conception of psychology. This conception did and could not provide an explanation of the possibility of quantifying the mind. In concluding, I reflect on how this case study helps to improve the dispute over when and why psychology became a science. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [source] Transactions of the Statistical Society of London (1837)JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL STATISTICAL SOCIETY: SERIES A (STATISTICS IN SOCIETY), Issue 1 2002Sidney Rosenbaum Summary. The Transactions of the Statistical Society of London (1837) appeared before the journal of the Royal Statistical Society began publication and represents the substantial statistical work that had been undertaken in the early years of the existence of the Society. The contents of this publication are summarized here against the historical background of the time. [source] Carolina in the Carolines: A Survey of Patterns and Meanings of Smoking on a Micronesian IslandMEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY QUARTERLY, Issue 4 2005Mac Marshall Tobacco use---especially smoking industrially manufactured cigarettes---kills nearly 5 million people annually and is the leading preventable cause of death worldwide. Tobacco is a widely used global commodity embedded in cultural meanings, and its consumption involves a set of learned, patterned social behaviors. Seemingly, then, tobacco offers a most appealing anthropological research topic, yet its study has been relatively ignored by medical anthropologists when compared to research on alcoholic beverages and illegal drugs. To help fill this gap, this article sketches the historical background of tobacco in Micronesia, presents the results of a cross-sectional smoking survey from Namoluk Atoll, and describes contemporary smoking patterns and locally understood symbolic associations of tobacco. Intersections among history, gender, local meanings, the health transition, and the transnational marketing of tobacco are addressed, and cigarette smoking is seen as part of a new syndemic of chronic diseases in Micronesia. [source] TRUTH TELLING AS REPARATIONSMETAPHILOSOPHY, Issue 4 2010MARGARET URBAN WALKER Abstract: International instruments now defend a "right to the truth" for victims of political repression and violence and include truth telling about human rights violations as a kind of reparation as well as a form of redress. While truth telling about violations is obviously a condition of redress or repair for violations, it may not be clear how truth telling itself is a kind of reparations. By showing that concerted truth telling can satisfy four features of suitable reparations vehicles, I defend the idea that politically implemented modes of truth telling to, for, and by those who are victims of gross violation and injustice may with good reason be counted as a kind of reparations. Understanding the doubly symbolic character of reparations, however, makes clearer why truth telling is unlikely to be sufficient reparation for serious wrongs and is likely to be sensitive to the larger context of reparative activity and its social, political, and historical background. [source] Clinical disorders affecting mesopic visionOPHTHALMIC AND PHYSIOLOGICAL OPTICS, Issue 3 2006Axel Petzold Abstract Vision in the mesopic range is affected by a number of inherited and acquired clinical disorders. We review these conditions and summarize the historical background, describing the clinical characteristics alongside the genetic basis and molecular biological mechanisms giving rise to rod and cone dysfunction relevant to twilight vision. The current diagnostic gold standards for each disease are discussed and curative and symptomatic treatment strategies are summarized. [source] Polymers with benzofuro-benzofuran structures,POLYMER INTERNATIONAL, Issue 10 2002Behzad Pourabas Abstract Several kinds of molecules and also polymers are going to be discussed in the present article. Common feature in these molecules and polymers is the possessing of a specific structural part, namely benzofuro,benzofuran. This structure will appear in several molecules and kinds of polymers in the text. A condensation reaction between glyoxal and phenols is the reaction needed to produce the mentioned structural part, ie benzofuro,benzofuran. Because of the importance of this reaction, a brief historical background in the initial section of the article, and some discussion on the structural assignment of the reaction product and the reaction mechanism is also given in sections later on. Types of polymers, which are discussed in this article, are mainly heat stable polymers including polyamide, poly(ether ketone sulfone), polybenzimidazole, poly(amide-benzimidazole) and polyarylates. Polyester, polyhaydrezide and polymers with NLO property are the other kinds of the discussed polymers in the text with the benzofuro,benzofuran structure in their main chain. There is not any detailed procedure provided in the text about the synthesis of the molecules or even the polymers and the general procedures provided follow only the methodological purposes of the authors. Thermal properties of the polymers are discussed in the final section of the article with an attempt to provide a comparative argument in order to reach a relationship between structure and thermal properties. © 2001 Society of Chemical Industry. [source] Growth hormone: licensing and prescription in childrenPRESCRIBER, Issue 5 2008Jeremy Kirk MD FRCPCH DCH Our series Prescribing in children gives practical advice for successful management of childhood problems in general practice. Here, the author describes the historical background of growth hormone treatment, its currently licensed indications and its prescription by shared-care protocols Copyright © 2008 Wiley Interface Ltd [source] REARGUARD POLITICS: HONG KONG'S MIDDLE CLASSTHE DEVELOPING ECONOMIES, Issue 2 2003TAI-LOK LUI This paper reports on the emergence of the middle class in contemporary Hong Kong First, it gives the historical background of the rise of the middle class in the 1970s. This historical background is important to our understanding of Hong Kong's middle class because it highlights its symbolic significance,the realization of the so-called Hong Kong dream,in the context of the local society. It is also relevant to our understanding of the shaping of its political outlook. The second section explores why the middle class stayed away from politics when the future of Hong Kong and democratization were the main topics in the political agenda of the 1980s and 1990s. Finally, the paper rounds up its discussion by reporting on the new grievances of the middle class amid the economic downturn after the Asian Financial Crisis. [source] Prose and Cons: Offender Auto/Biographies, Penal Reform and Probation TrainingTHE HOWARD JOURNAL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE, Issue 5 2002Mike Nellis ,The life history approach is peculiarly ignored in teaching contexts' wrote Ken Plummer in 1983 (p.74). Things may have changed on ordinary social science degrees, but offender/prisoner autobiographies , akin to the life story approach , are a still underused resource in the training of probation officers. The criminological importance of such autobiographies was recently affirmed by the late Steve Morgan (1999), adroitly re,therorised by Goodey (2000) and used constructively by Wilson and Reuss (2000) in a study of prison(er) education. This article describes, from experience, how they can be used at the beginning of a probation training programme, to develop a preliminary understanding of desistance, and to open up debate on what works with offenders and what doesn't, in and out of prison. An historical background to British prisoner autobiographies is provided to ground this approach to teaching in a distinctive criminological discourse, to provide a resource for those who wish to take debate on prisoner autobiographies further, and to indicate the kind of impact that the best of this writing has had on the penal reform process. The article should be read both as a contribution to an overdue, and at present meagre, debate on how an academically sound and vocationally relevant curriculum for trainee probation officers can be constructed, and as an at least partial substantiation of the deeper argument that probation training can draw productively on traditions of penal reform which it has hitherto neglected. [source] National Standards for the Probation Service: Managing Post-Fordist PenalityTHE HOWARD JOURNAL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE, Issue 1 2002Paul Sparrow The debate surrounding post-Fordism was focused primarily on changes in the ,late industrial' technology of work and the new social relations of production with which this is associated. This analysis has rarely reached into the domain of punishment and discipline, which is perhaps surprising given the historical demonstration of an ,elective affinity' between the nature of work regimes and the form of discipline to which offenders are subject. If we have indeed entered a new era of technological and social relations of production (,post-Fordism") then we might expect there to be consequential changes in the administrative contours of criminal justice. The exploration of this conjecture has a set of three interwoven elements. Firstly, there is a review of the historical background to the structural affinities between work and penality, as well as an indication of some emerging contemporary resonance between them. Secondly, this will be given a measure of empirical reference through examining the nature of the modern probation service, and in particular the extensive network of guidelines, contracts, monitoring and inspection which serve to ,regulate' not only offenders but also the working practices of the probation officer. Finally, we conclude by suggesting that the new penality is a continuation of the modern strategies of punishment and discipline, which in its revised form can indeed be seen as post-Fordist (though certainly not postmodern). [source] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||