Home About us Contact
|
Home About us Contact | ||
|
|
||
Evolutionarily
Terms modified by Evolutionarily Selected AbstractsBROADENING THE APPLICATION OF EVOLUTIONARILY BASED GENETIC PEST MANAGEMENTEVOLUTION, Issue 2 2008Fred Gould Insect- and tick-vectored diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, and Lyme disease cause human suffering, and current approaches for prevention are not adequate. Invasive plants and animals such as Scotch broom, zebra mussels, and gypsy moths continue to cause environmental damage and economic losses in agriculture and forestry. Rodents transmit diseases and cause major pre- and postharvest losses, especially in less affluent countries. Each of these problems might benefit from the developing field of Genetic Pest Management that is conceptually based on principles of evolutionary biology. This article briefly describes the history of this field, new molecular tools in this field, and potential applications of those tools. There will be a need for evolutionary biologists to interact with researchers and practitioners in a variety of other fields to determine the most appropriate targets for genetic pest management, the most appropriate methods for specific targets, and the potential of natural selection to diminish the effectiveness of genetic pest management. In addition to producing environmentally sustainable pest management solutions, research efforts in this area could lead to new insights about the evolution of selfish genetic elements in natural systems and will provide students with the opportunity to develop a more sophisticated understanding of the role of evolutionary biology in solving societal problems. [source] Chromosomal mapping of ANTP class homeobox genes in amphioxus: piecing together ancestral genomesEVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT, Issue 5 2003L. F. C. Castro Summary Homeobox genes encode DNA-binding proteins, many of which are implicated in the control of embryonic development. Evolutionarily, most homeobox genes fall into two related clades: the ANTP and the PRD classes. Some genes in ANTP class, notably Hox, ParaHox, and NK genes, have an intriguing arrangement into physical clusters. To investigate the evolutionary history of these gene clusters, we examined homeobox gene chromosomal locations in the cephalochordate amphioxus, Branchiostoma floridae. We deduce that 22 amphioxus ANTP class homeobox genes localize in just three chromosomes. One contains the Hox cluster plus AmphiEn, AmphiMnx, and AmphiDll. The ParaHox cluster resides in another chromosome, whereas a third chromosome contains the NK type homeobox genes, including AmphiMsx and AmphiTlx. By comparative analysis we infer that clustering of ANTP class homeobox genes evolved just once, during a series of extensive cis -duplication events of genes early in animal evolution. A trans -duplication event occurred later to yield the Hox and ParaHox gene clusters on different chromosomes. The results obtained have implications for understanding the origin of homeobox gene clustering, the diversification of the ANTP class of homeobox genes, and the evolution of animal genomes. [source] Mutation analysis of carbamoyl phosphate synthetase: Does the structurally conserved glutamine amidotransferase triad act as a functional dyad?PROTEIN SCIENCE, Issue 7 2008Emily J. Hart Abstract Evolutionarily conserved triad glutamine amidotransferase (GAT) domains catalyze the cleavage of glutamine to yield ammonia and sequester the ammonia in a tunnel until delivery to a variety of acceptor substrates in synthetase domains of variable structure. Whereas a conserved hydrolytic triad (Cys/His/Glu) is observed in the solved GAT structures, the specificity pocket for glutamine is not apparent, presumably because its formation is dependent on the conformational change that couples acceptor availability to a greatly increased rate of glutamine cleavage. In Escherichia coli carbamoyl phosphate synthetase (eCPS), one of the best characterized triad GAT members, the Cys269 and His353 triad residues are essential for glutamine hydrolysis, whereas Glu355 is not critical for eCPS activity. To further define the glutamine-binding pocket and possibly identify an alternative member of the catalytic triad that is situated for this role in the coupled conformation, we have analyzed mutations at Gln310, Asn311, Asp334, and Gln351, four conserved, but not yet analyzed residues that might potentially function as the third triad member. Alanine substitution of Gln351, Asn311, and Gln310 yielded respective Km increases of 145, 27, and 15, suggesting that Gln351 plays a key role in glutamine binding in the coupled conformation, and that Asn311 and Gln310 make less significant contributions. None of the mutant kcat values varied significantly from those for wild-type eCPS. Combined with previously reported data on other conserved eCPS residues, these results strongly suggest that Cys269 and His353 function as a catalytic dyad in the GAT site of eCPS. [source] AMPK-dependent hormonal regulation of whole-body energy metabolismACTA PHYSIOLOGICA, Issue 1 2009N. L. Dzamko Abstract AMP-dependent protein kinase (AMPK) is an evolutionarily conserved serine/threonine protein kinase central to the regulation of energy balance at both the cellular and whole-body levels. In its classical role as an intracellular metabolic stress-sensing kinase, AMPK switches on fatty acid oxidation and glucose uptake in muscle, while switching off hepatic gluconeogenesis. AMPK also has a broader role in metabolism through the control of appetite. Regulation of AMPK activity at the whole-body level is coordinated by a growing number of hormones and cytokines secreted from adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, pancreas and the gut including leptin, adiponectin, insulin, interluekin-6, resistin, TNF-, and ghrelin. Understanding how these secreted signalling proteins regulate AMPK activity to control fatty acid oxidation, glucose uptake, gluconeogenesis and appetite may yield therapeutic treatments for metabolic disorders such as diabetes, insulin resistance and obesity. [source] Functional studies of an evolutionarily conserved, cytochrome b5 domain protein reveal a specific role in axonemal organisation and the general phenomenon of post-division axonemal growth in trypanosomesCYTOSKELETON, Issue 1 2009Helen Farr Abstract Eukaryotic cilia and flagella are highly conserved structures composed of a canonical 9+2 microtubule axoneme. Several recent proteomic studies of cilia and flagella have been published, including a proteome of the flagellum of the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei. Comparing proteomes reveals many novel proteins that appear to be widely conserved in evolution. Amongst these, we found a previously uncharacterised protein which localised to the axoneme in T. brucei, and therefore named it Trypanosome Axonemal protein (TAX)-2. Ablation of the protein using RNA interference in the procyclic form of the parasite has no effect on growth but causes a reduction in motility. Using transmission electron microscopy, various structural defects were seen in some axonemes, most frequently with microtubule doublets missing from the 9+2 arrangement. RNAi knockdown of TAX-2 expression in the bloodstream form of the parasite caused defects in growth and cytokinesis, a further example of the effects caused by loss of flagellar function in bloodstream form T. brucei. In procyclic cells we used a new set of vectors to ablate protein expression in cells expressing a GFP:TAX-2 fusion protein, which enabled us to easily quantify protein reduction and visualise axonemes made before and after RNAi induction. This establishes a useful generic technique but also revealed a specific observation that the new flagellum on the daughter trypanosome continues growth after cytokinesis. Our results provide evidence for TAX-2 function within the axoneme, where we suggest that it is involved in processes linking the outer doublet microtubules and the central pair. Cell Motil. Cytoskeleton 2008. © 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] IFN-, induces apoptosis in mouse embryonic stem cells, a putative mechanism of its embryotoxicityDEVELOPMENT GROWTH & DIFFERENTIATION, Issue 3 2000Gang-Ming Zou It has been reported that interferon (IFN)-, should inhibit in vitro mouse embryo growth by direct cell toxicity. However, the mechanism involved has not been clearly established. In the present study, this question was addressed using the embryonic stem (ES) cell model. It was found that IFN-, induces a dose-dependent apoptosis in ES cells, as assessed by trypan-blue staining, by Annexin-V labeling and DNA analysis. Moreover, IFN-, treatment cooperates with Fas-mediated apoptosis, a phenomenon that has been recently reported. As Bcl-2 oncoprotein functions as a death repressor molecule in an evolutionarily conserved cell death pathway, its expression was analyzed by flow cytometry. It was demonstrated that Bcl-2 is expressed in ES cells. When compared to untreated ES cells, IFN-,-treated, apoptotic cells expressed a lower Bcl-2 level and a normal level of Fas, whereas surviving cells expressed a normal level of Bcl-2 but a lower Fas expression. Altogether, these data suggest that IFN-, may influence early mouse embryo development by promoting apoptosis, which may constitute a novel mechanism of IFN-, embryotoxicity. [source] Phylogeny of the teashirt-related zinc finger (tshz) gene family and analysis of the developmental expression of tshz2 and tshz3b in the zebrafishDEVELOPMENTAL DYNAMICS, Issue 3 2010Joana S. Santos Abstract The tshz genes comprise a family of evolutionarily conserved transcription factors. However, despite the major role played by Drosophila tsh during the development of the fruit fly, the expression and function of other tshz genes have been analyzed in a very limited set of organisms and, therefore, our current knowledge of these genes is still fragmentary. In this study, we perform detailed phylogenetic analyses of the tshz genes, identify the members of this gene family in zebrafish and describe the developmental expressions of two of them, tshz2 and tshz3b, and compare them with meis1, meis2.1, meis2.2, pax6a, and pax6b expression patterns. The expression patterns of these genes define a complex set of coexpression domains in the developing zebrafish brain where their gene products have the potential to interact. Developmental Dynamics 239:1010,1018, 2010. © 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] Patterning the embryonic kidney: BMP signaling mediates the differentiation of the pronephric tubules and duct in Xenopus laevisDEVELOPMENTAL DYNAMICS, Issue 1 2008Christina M. Bracken Abstract The Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) mediate a wide range of diverse cellular behaviors throughout development. Previous studies implicated an important role for BMP signaling during the differentiation of the definitive mammalian kidney, the metanephros. In order to examine whether BMP signaling also plays an important role during the patterning of earlier renal systems, we examined the development of the earliest nephric system, the pronephros. Using the amphibian model system Xenopus laevis, in combination with reagents designed to inhibit BMP signaling during specific stages of nephric development, we revealed an evolutionarily conserved role for this signaling pathway during renal morphogenesis. Our results demonstrate that conditional BMP inhibition after specification of the pronephric anlagen is completed, but prior to the onset of morphogenesis and differentiation of renal tissues, results in the severe malformation of both the pronephric duct and tubules. Importantly, the effects of BMP signaling on the developing nephron during this developmental window are specific, only affecting the developing duct and tubules, but not the glomus. These data, combined with previous studies examining metanephric development in mice, provide further support that BMP functions to mediate morphogenesis of the specified renal field during vertebrate embryogenesis. Specifically, BMP signaling is required for the differentiation of two types of nephric structures, the pronephric tubules and duct. Developmental Dynamics 237:132,144, 2008. © 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] Muscle stem cells and model systems for their investigationDEVELOPMENTAL DYNAMICS, Issue 12 2007Nicolas Figeac Abstract Stem cells are characterized by their clonal ability both to generate differentiated progeny and to undergo self-renewal. Studies of adult mammalian organs have revealed stem cells in practically every tissue. In the adult skeletal muscle, satellite cells are the primary muscle stem cells, responsible for postnatal muscle growth, hypertrophy, and regeneration. In the past decade, several molecular markers have been found that identify satellite cells in quiescent and activated states. However, despite their prime importance, surprisingly little is known about the biology of satellite cells, as their analysis was for a long time hampered by a lack of genetically amenable experimental models where their properties can be dissected. Here, we review how the embryonic origin of satellite cells was discovered using chick and mouse model systems and discuss how cells from other sources can contribute to muscle regeneration. We present evidence for evolutionarily conserved properties of muscle stem cells and their identification in lower vertebrates and in the fruit fly. In Drosophila, muscle stem cells called adult muscle precursors (AMP) can be identified in embryos and in larvae by persistent expression of a myogenic basic helix,loop,helix factor Twist. AMP cells play a crucial role in the Drosophila life cycle, allowing de novo formation and regeneration of adult musculature during metamorphosis. Based on the premise that AMPs represent satellite-like cells of the fruit fly, important insight into the biology of vertebrate muscle stem cells can be gained from genetic analysis in Drosophila. Developmental Dynamics 236:3332,3342, 2007. © 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] The zebrafish bHLH PAS transcriptional regulator, single-minded 1 (sim1), is required for isotocin cell developmentDEVELOPMENTAL DYNAMICS, Issue 8 2006Jennifer L. Eaton Abstract A wide range of physiological and behavioral processes, such as social, sexual, and maternal behaviors, learning and memory, and osmotic homeostasis are influenced by the neurohypophysial peptides oxytocin and vasopressin. Disruptions of these hormone systems have been linked to several neurobehavioral disorders, including autism, Prader-Willi syndrome, affective disorders, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Studies in zebrafish promise to reveal the complex network of regulatory genes and signaling pathways that direct the development of oxytocin- and vasopressin-like neurons, and provide insight into factors involved in brain disorders associated with disruption of these systems. Isotocin, which is homologous to oxytocin, is expressed early, in a simple pattern in the developing zebrafish brain. Single-minded 1 (sim1), a member of the bHLH-PAS family of transcriptional regulatory genes, is required for terminal differentiation of mammalian oxytocin cells and is a master regulator of neurogenesis in Drosophila. Here we show that sim1 is expressed in the zebrafish forebrain and is required for isotocin cell development. The expression pattern of sim1 mRNA in the embryonic forebrain is dynamic and complex, and overlaps with isotocin expression in the preoptic area. We provide evidence that the role of sim1 in zebrafish neuroendocrine cell development is evolutionarily conserved with that of mammals. Developmental Dynamics 235:2071,2082, 2006. © 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] Identification of BOIP, a novel cDNA highly expressed during spermatogenesis that encodes a protein interacting with the orange domain of the hairy-related transcription factor HRT1/Hey1 in Xenopus and mouseDEVELOPMENTAL DYNAMICS, Issue 4 2003Reginald Van Wayenbergh Abstract Hairy-related transcription factor (HRT/Hey) genes encode a novel subfamily of basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factors related to the Drosophila hairy and Enhancer-of-split (E(spl)) and the mammalian HES proteins that function as downstream mediators of Notch signaling. Using the yeast two-hybrid approach, a previously uncharacterized protein was identified in Xenopus that interacts with XHRT1 (originally referred to as bc8), one member of the HRT/Hey subclass. This protein is evolutionarily conserved in chordates. It binds to sequences adjacent to the bHLH domain of XHRT1 known as the Orange domain and has been named bc8 Orange interacting protein (BOIP). BOIP shows a rather uniform subcellular localization and is recruited to the nucleus upon binding to XHRT1. In Xenopus, XBOIP mRNA is detected by RNase protection analysis throughout embryogenesis. In the adult, the strongest expression is detected in testis. In the mouse, high levels of BOIP mRNA are also found in adult testis. No expression is detected in the embryo and in any of the other adult organs tested. In situ hybridization revealed that BOIP transcripts were detected almost exclusively in round spermatids and that this expression overlaps with that of Hey1 (HRT1), which is expressed throughout spermatogenesis. In view of the importance of the Orange domain for HRT/Hey function, the newly identified BOIP proteins may serve as regulators specifically of HRT1/Hey1 activity. Developmental Dynamics 228:716,725, 2003. © 2003 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] The genome of Syntrophomonas wolfei: new insights into syntrophic metabolism and biohydrogen productionENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY, Issue 8 2010Jessica R. Sieber Summary Syntrophomonas wolfei is a specialist, evolutionarily adapted for syntrophic growth with methanogens and other hydrogen- and/or formate-using microorganisms. This slow-growing anaerobe has three putative ribosome RNA operons, each of which has 16S rRNA and 23S rRNA genes of different length and multiple 5S rRNA genes. The genome also contains 10 RNA-directed, DNA polymerase genes. Genomic analysis shows that S. wolfei relies solely on the reduction of protons, bicarbonate or unsaturated fatty acids to re-oxidize reduced cofactors. Syntrophomonas wolfei lacks the genes needed for aerobic or anaerobic respiration and has an exceptionally limited ability to create ion gradients. An ATP synthase and a pyrophosphatase were the only systems detected capable of creating an ion gradient. Multiple homologues for ,-oxidation genes were present even though S. wolfei uses a limited range of fatty acids from four to eight carbons in length.Syntrophomonas wolfei, other syntrophic metabolizers with completed genomic sequences, and thermophilic anaerobes known to produce high molar ratios of hydrogen from glucose have genes to produce H2 from NADH by an electron bifurcation mechanism. Comparative genomic analysis also suggests that formate production from NADH may involve electron bifurcation. A membrane-bound, iron,sulfur oxidoreductase found in S. wolfei and Syntrophus aciditrophicus may be uniquely involved in reverse electron transport during syntrophic fatty acid metabolism. The genome sequence of S. wolfei reveals several core reactions that may be characteristic of syntrophic fatty acid metabolism and illustrates how biological systems produce hydrogen from thermodynamically difficult reactions. [source] Premating Avoidance of Inbreeding Absent in Female Guppies (Poecilia reticulata)ETHOLOGY, Issue 7 2006Åslaug Viken The recognition and avoidance of kin during mating can be an important means of reducing the potential for inbreeding depression in offspring. We report here that premating mechanisms to avoid inbreeding, either innate or learnt through juvenile experience, are at best weak in female guppies (Poecilia reticulata). Guppies are small, ovoviviparous, neo-tropical freshwater fish, with a polygamous mating system where males actively court females and females are selective of their mates. In a series of mate-choice experiments, naïve, virgin females of the Quare River population in Trinidad were given a choice between a brother and a non-sib male from the same population. Initially, females were only provided olfactory cues upon which to base their choice and then subsequently both olfactory and visual cues. Despite the females displaying mate choice, we found no evidence of them discriminating between the male types in either experiment. There was thus no indication of inbreeding avoidance, suggesting that experiences after maturation or with mature males (e.g. rare male preference), dispersal and/or post-mating mechanisms may be evolutionarily more important avoidance mechanisms. [source] DNA methylation controls Foxp3 gene expressionEUROPEAN JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY, Issue 6 2008Julia Abstract Compelling evidence suggests that Foxp3-expressing CD25+CD4+ regulatory T cells (Treg) are generated within the thymus as a separate lineage. However, Foxp3+CD4+ Treg can also be generated de novo in a TGF-,-dependent process from naive T cells by TCR triggering. Recently, we have shown that naturally occurring, but not in vitro TGF-,-induced Foxp3+ Treg display stable Foxp3 expression that was associated with selective demethylation of an evolutionarily conserved element within the Foxp3 locus named TSDR (Treg-specific demethylated region). Here, we report that inhibition of DNA methylation by azacytidine, even in absence of exogenous TGF-,, not only promoted de novo induction of Foxp3 expression during priming, but also conferred stability of Foxp3 expression upon restimulation. Most notably, such stable Foxp3 expression was found only for cells displaying enhanced TSDR demethylation. In contrast, in vitro TSDR methylation diminished its transcriptional activity. Foxp3+ Treg generated in vivo by DEC-205-mediated targeting of agonist ligands to dendritic cells showed long-term survival in the absence of the inducing antigen and exhibited efficient TSDR demethylation. Together, our data suggest that TSDR is an important methylation-sensitive element regulating Foxp3 expression and demonstrate that epigenetic imprinting in this region is critical for establishment of a stable Treg lineage. Supporting Information for this article is available at www.wiley-vch.de/contents/jc_2040/2008/38105_s.pdf [source] ON THE ADAPTIVE ACCURACY OF DIRECTIONAL ASYMMETRY IN INSECT WING SIZEEVOLUTION, Issue 11 2008Christophe Pélabon Subtle left,right biases are often observed in organisms with an overall bilateral symmetry. The evolutionary significance of these directional asymmetries remains uncertain, however, and scenarios of both developmental constraints and adaptation have been suggested. Reviewing the literature on asymmetry in insect wings, we analyze patterns of directional asymmetry in wing size to evaluate the possible adaptive significance of this character. We found that directional asymmetry in wing size is widespread among insects, with left- and right-biased asymmetries commonly observed. The direction of the asymmetry does not appear to be evolutionarily conserved above the species level. Overall, we argue that the very small magnitude of directional asymmetry, 0.7% of the wing size on average, associated with an extremely imprecise expression, precludes directional asymmetry from playing any major adaptive role. [source] BIOTIC INTERACTIONS AND MACROEVOLUTION: EXTENSIONS AND MISMATCHES ACROSS SCALES AND LEVELSEVOLUTION, Issue 4 2008David Jablonski Clade dynamics in the fossil record broadly fit expectations from the operation of competition, predation, and mutualism, but data from both modern and ancient systems suggest mismatches across scales and levels. Indirect effects, as when antagonistic or mutualistic interactions restrict geographic range and thereby elevate extinction risk, are probably widespread and may flow in both directions, as when species- or organismic-level factors increase extinction risk or speciation probabilities. Apparent contradictions across scales and levels have been neglected, including (1) the individualistic geographic shifts of species on centennial and millennial timescales versus evidence for fine-tuned coevolutionary relationships; (2) the extensive and dynamic networks of interactions faced by most species versus the evolution of costly enemy-specific defenses and finely attuned mutualisms; and (3) the macroevolutionary lags often seen between the origin and the diversification of a clade or an evolutionary novelty versus the rapid microevolution of advantageous phenotypes and the invasibility of most communities. Resolution of these and other cross-level tensions presumably hinges on how organismic interactions impinge on genetic population structures, geographic ranges, and the persistence of incipient species, but generalizations are not yet possible. Paleontological and neontological data are both incomplete and so the most powerful response to these problems will require novel integrative approaches. Promising research areas include more realistic approaches to modeling and empirical analysis of large-scale diversity dynamics of ostensibly competing clades; spatial and phylogenetic dissections of clades involved in escalatory dynamics (where prey respond evolutionarily to a broad and shifting array of enemies); analyses of the short- versus long-term consequences of mutualistic symbioses; and fuller use of abundant natural experiments on the evolutionary impacts of ecosystem engineers. [source] MICRO- AND MACROEVOLUTIONARY DECOUPLING OF CICHLID JAWS: A TEST OF LIEM'S KEY INNOVATION HYPOTHESISEVOLUTION, Issue 10 2006C. D. Hulsey Abstract The extent to which elements of functional systems can change independently (modularity) likely influences the diversification of lineages. Major innovations in organismal design, like the pharyngeal jaw in cichlid fishes, may be key to a group's success when they relax constraints on diversification by increasing phenotypic modularity. In cichlid fishes, pharyngeal jaw modifications that enhanced the ability to breakdown prey may have freed their oral jaws from serving their ancestral dual role as a site of both prey capture and prey processing. This functional decoupling that allowed the oral jaws to become devoted solely to prey capture has been hypothesized to have permitted the two sets of cichlid jaws to evolve independently. We tested the hypothesis that oral and pharyngeal jaw mechanics are evolutionarily decoupled both within and among Neotropical Heroine cichlids. In the trophically polymorphic species Herichthys minckleyi, molariforms that exhibit enlarged molarlike pharyngeal jaw teeth were found to have approximately 400% greater lower jaw mass compared to H. minckleyi with the alternative papilliform pharyngeal morphology. However, oral jaw gape, lower jaw velocity ratios, anterior jaw linkage mechanics, and jaw protrusion did not differ between the morphotypes. In 40 other Heroine species, there was a weak correlation between oral jaw mechanics and pharyngeal jaw mass when phylogenetic history was ignored. Yet, after expansion of the cytochrome b phylogeny for Heroines, change in oral jaw mechanics was found to be independent of evolutionary change in pharyngeal jaw mass based on independent contrasts. Evolutionary decoupling of oral and pharyngeal jaw mechanics has likely played a critical role in the unparalleled trophic diversification of cichlid fishes. [source] HAVE MALE AND FEMALE GENITALIA COEVOLVED?EVOLUTION, Issue 9 2005A PHYLOGENETIC ANALYSIS OF GENITALIC MORPHOLOGY AND SEXUAL SIZE DIMORPHISM IN WEB-BUILDING SPIDERS (ARANEAE: ARANEOIDEA) Abstract Sexual size dimorphism (SSD) can strongly influence the evolution of reproductive strategies and life history. If SSD is extreme, and other characters (e.g., genitalic size) also increase with size, then functional conflicts may arise between the sexes. Spiders offer an excellent opportunity to investigate this issue because of their wide range of SSD. By using modern phylogenetic methods with 16 species of orb-weaving spiders, we provide strong evidence for the "positive genitalic divergence" model, implying that sexual genitalic dimorphism (SGD) increases as SSD increases. This pattern is supported by an evolutionary mismatch between the absolute sizes of male and female genitalia across species. Indeed, our findings reveal a dramatic reversal from male genitalia that are up to 87X larger than female genitalia in size-monomorphic species to female genitalia that are up to 2.8X larger in extremely size-dimorphic species. We infer that divergence in SGD could limit SSD both in spiders, and potentially in other taxa as well. Further, male and female body size, as well as male and female genitalia size, are decoupled evolutionarily. Finally, we show a negative scaling (hypoallometry) of male and female genitalic morphology within sexes. Evolutionary forces specific to each sex, such as larger female size (increased fecundity) or smaller male size (enhanced mate-searching ability), may be balanced by stabilizing selection on relative genitalic size. [source] EVOLUTION OF PREY BEHAVIOR IN RESPONSE TO CHANGES IN PREDATION REGIME: DAMSELFLIES IN FISH AND DRAGONFLY LAKESEVOLUTION, Issue 3 2003R. Stoks Abstract In a large behavioral experiment we reconstructed the evolution of behavioral responses to predators to explore how interactions with predators have shaped the evolution of their prey,behavior. All Enallagma damselfly species reduced both movement and feeding in the presence of coexisting predators. Some Enallagma species inhabit water bodies with both fish and dragonflies, and these species responded to the presence of both predators, whereas other Enallagma species inhabit water bodies that have only large dragonflies as predators, and these species only responded to the presence of dragonflies. Lineages that shifted to live with large dragonflies showed no evolution in behaviors expressed in the presence of dragonflies, but they evolved greater movement in the absence of predators and greater movement and feeding in the presence of fish. These results suggest that Enallagma species have evolutionarily lost the ability to recognize fish as a predator. Because species coexisting with only dragonfly predators have also evolved the ability to escape attacking dragonfly predators by swimming, the decreased predation risk associated with foraging appears to have shifted the balance of the foraging/predation risk trade-off to allow increased activity in the absence of mortality threats to evolve in these lineages. Our results suggest that evolution in response to changes in predation regime may have greater consequences for characters expressed in the absence of mortality threats because of how the balance between the conflicting demands of growth and predation risk are altered. [source] FMRFamide gene and peptide expression during central nervous system development of the cephalopod mollusk, Idiosepius notoidesEVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT, Issue 2 2010Tim Wollesen SUMMARY Mollusks are a showcase of brain evolution represented by several classes with a varying degree of nervous system centralization. Cellular and molecular processes involved in the evolution of the highly complex cephalopod brain from a simple, monoplacophoran-like ancestor are still obscure and homologies on the cellular level are poorly established. FMRFamide (Phe-Ile-Arg-Phe-NH2)-related peptides (FaRPs) constitute an evolutionarily conserved and diverse group of neuropeptides in the central nervous system (CNS) of many metazoans. Herein, we provide a detailed description of the developing FMRFamide-like immunoreactive (Fa-lir) CNS of the pygmy squid Idiosepius notoides using gene expression analyses and immunocytochemistry. The open reading frame of the I. notoides FMRFamide gene InFMRF predicts one copy each of FIRFamide, FLRFamide (Phe-Leu-Arg-Phe-NH2), ALSGDAFLRFamide (Ala-Leu-Ser-Gly-Asp-Ala-Phe-Leu-Arg-Phe-NH2), and 11 copies of FMRFamide. Applying matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (ToF) mass spectrometry-based peptide profiling, we characterized all predicted FaRPs except ALSGDAFLRFamide. Two cell clusters express InFMRF and show FMRFamide-like-immunoreactivity within the palliovisceral ganglia, that is, the future posterior subesophageal mass, during the lobe differentiation phase. They project neurites via ventral axonal tracts, which form the scaffold of the future subesophageal mass. In the supraesophageal mass, InFMRF is first expressed during mid-embryogenesis in the superior and inferior buccal lobes. A neurite of the peduncle commissure represents the first Fa-lir element. Later, the sub- and supraesophageal mass interconnect via Fa-lir neurites and more brain lobes express InFMRF and FMRFamide-like peptides. InFMRF expression was observed in fewer brain lobes than Fa-lir elements. The early expression of InFMRF and FMRFamide-lir peptides in the visceral system and not the remaining CNS of the cephalopod I. notoides resembles the condition found in the majority of investigated gastropods. [source] Microevolutionary support for a developmental hourglass: gene expression patterns shape sequence variation and divergence in DrosophilaEVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT, Issue 5 2008Tami Cruickshank SUMMARY A central goal of evolutionary developmental biology (Evo-Devo) is to synthesize comparative molecular developmental genetics and its description of the dynamic relationship between genotype and phenotype with the microevolutionary processes (mutation, random drift, and selection) of population genetics. To this end, we analyzed sequence variation of five gene classes that act sequentially to shape early embryo development in Drosophila: maternal, gap, pair-rule, segment polarity, and segment identity genes. We found two related patterns: (1) a microevolutionary pattern, wherein relative sequence variation within species is 2- to 3-fold higher for maternal-effect genes than for any other gene class; and, (2) a macroevolutionary pattern, wherein the relative sequence divergence among species for maternal-effect genes is 2- to 4-fold greater than for any other gene class. Both patterns are qualitatively and quantitatively consistent with the predictions of microevolutionary theory. Our findings connect within-species genetic variation to between-species divergence and shed light on the controversy over the existence of a "developmental hourglass," where mid-embryonic stages are more evolutionarily constrained than either earlier or later stages. Because maternal-effect genes experience relaxed selective constraint relative to zygotic-effect genes, they explore a wider mutational and phenotypic space. As a result, early acting maternal-effect genes diverge more widely across taxa and thereby broaden the base of the developmental hourglass. In contrast, later acting zygotic genes are relatively more constrained and limited in their diversification across taxa, narrowing the waist of the developmental hourglass. This pattern is obscured by genes with both maternal and zygotic expression, which experience the strongest evolutionary constraint. [source] Short and long germ segmentation: unanswered questions in the evolution of a developmental modeEVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT, Issue 6 2005Paul Z. Liu Summary The insect body plan is very well conserved, yet the developmental mechanisms of segmentation are surprisingly varied. Less evolutionarily derived insects undergo short germ segmentation where only the anterior segments are specified before gastrulation whereas the remaining posterior segments are formed during a later secondary growth phase. In contrast, derived long germ insects such as Drosophila specify their entire bodies essentially simultaneously. These fundamental embryological differences imply potentially divergent molecular patterning events. Numerous studies have focused on comparing the expression and function of the homologs of Drosophila segmentation genes between Drosophila and different short and long germ insects. Here we review these comparative data with special emphasis on understanding how short germ insects generate segments and how this ancestral mechanism may have been modified in derived long germ insects such as Drosophila. We break down the larger issue of short versus long germ segmentation into its component developmental problems and structure our discussion in order to highlight the unanswered questions in the evolution of insect segmentation. [source] Immune response modifiers , mode of actionEXPERIMENTAL DERMATOLOGY, Issue 5 2006Meinhard Schiller Abstract:, The innate immune system governs the interconnecting pathways of microbial recognition, inflammation, microbial clearance, and cell death. A family of evolutionarily conserved receptors, known as the Toll-like receptors (TLRs), is crucial in early host defense against invading pathogens. Upon TLR stimulation, nuclear factor-,B activation and the interferon (IFN)-regulatory factor 3 pathway initiate production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor-,, and production of type I IFNs (IFN-, and IFN-,), respectively. The innate immunity thereby offers diverse targets for highly selective therapeutics, such as small molecular synthetic compounds that modify innate immune responses. The notion that activation of the innate immune system is a prerequisite for the induction of acquired immunity raised interest in these immune response modifiers as potential therapeutics for viral infections and various tumors. A scenario of dermal events following skin cancer treatment with imiquimod presumably comprises (i) an initial low amount of pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion by macrophages and dermal dendritic cells (DCs), thereby (ii) attracting an increasing number type I IFN-producing plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs) from the blood; (iii) Langerhans cells migrate into draining lymph nodes, leading to an increased presentation of tumor antigen in the draining lymph node, and (iv) consequently an increased generation of tumor-specific T cells and finally (v) an accumulation of tumoricidal effector cells in the treated skin area. The induction of predominately T helper (Th)1-type cytokine profiles by TLR agonists such as imiquimod might have further benefits by shifting the dominant Th2-type response in atopic diseases such as asthma and atopic dermatitis to a more potent Th1 response. [source] Defining the caspase-containing apoptotic machinery contributing to cornification in human epidermal equivalentsEXPERIMENTAL DERMATOLOGY, Issue 1 2006Vijaya Chaturvedi Abstract:, Whether terminal differentiation/stratum corneum formation of keratinocytes (KCs) represents a form of programmed cell death, utilizing mediators of classical apoptosis, is unclear. Apoptosis, an evolutionarily conserved death process, is comprised of extrinsic and intrinsic pathways, which converge using caspase 3. To define upstream and downstream caspases involved in terminal differentiation, we utilized human epidermal equivalents (EEs). Using submerged cultures comprised of human KCs, EEs were sequentially analyzed before and after being raised to an air/liquid (A/L) interface at 3,24 h intervals. At each time point, EEs were analyzed morphologically and for specific enzyme activity to distinguish different initiator (caspases 1, 2, 8, 9) and effector caspases (3, 6, 7). Terminal differentiation began at 6,8 h, as defined by stratum corneum with loricirin expression and completed at 18,24 h producing an epidermis resembling normal skin. Enzyme activity for caspases 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, and 9 (but not 4, 5) was enhanced (>two-fold nmol/mg/h) at 3,6 h compared with submerged cultures. Processing of caspase 14 occurred at 18 h, and cleaved caspase 14 was increased at 24 h. Activated caspase 3-positive and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated nick end labeling-positive KCs were identified in EEs at 3,6 h corresponding to initiation sites of terminal differentiation. Addition of caspase inhibitors reduced levels of involucrin and loricrin in EEs raised to an A/L interface. We conclude caspases function as important death effectors strategically positioned at intersection of intrinsic and extrinsic pathways in KCs undergoing stratum corneum formation. [source] Paralog of the formylglycine-generating enzyme , retention in the endoplasmic reticulum by canonical and noncanonical signalsFEBS JOURNAL, Issue 6 2008Santosh Lakshmi Gande Formylglycine-generating enzyme (FGE) catalyzes in newly synthesized sulfatases the oxidation of a specific cysteine residue to formylglycine, which is the catalytic residue required for sulfate ester hydrolysis. This post-translational modification occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and is an essential step in the biogenesis of this enzyme family. A paralog of FGE (pFGE) also localizes to the ER. It shares many properties with FGE, but lacks formylglycine-generating activity. There is evidence that FGE and pFGE act in concert, possibly by forming complexes with sulfatases and one another. Here we show that human pFGE, but not FGE, is retained in the ER through its C - terminal tetrapeptide PGEL, a noncanonical variant of the classic KDEL ER-retention signal. Surprisingly, PGEL, although having two nonconsensus residues (PG), confers efficient ER retention when fused to a secretory protein. Inducible coexpression of pFGE at different levels in FGE-expressing cells did not significantly influence the kinetics of FGE secretion, suggesting that pFGE is not a retention factor for FGE in vivo. PGEL is accessible at the surface of the pFGE structure. It is found in 21 mammalian species with available pFGE sequences. Other species carry either canonical signals (eight mammals and 26 nonmammals) or different noncanonical variants (six mammals and six nonmammals). Among the latter, SGEL was tested and found to also confer ER retention. Although evolutionarily conserved for mammalian pFGE, the PGEL signal is found only in one further human protein entering the ER. Its consequences for KDEL receptor-mediated ER retrieval and benefit for pFGE functionality remain to be fully resolved. [source] Two splicing isoforms of the Y-box protein ctYB-1 appear on the same mRNA moleculeFEBS JOURNAL, Issue 1 2007Dmitry Nashchekin Y-box proteins constitute an evolutionarily conserved family of DNA- and RNA-binding proteins involved in the regulation of transcription and translation. In the dipteran Chironomus tentans, a homologue to the vertebrate Y-box protein YB-1 was recently characterized and designated ctYB-1. It is transferred from nucleus to cytoplasm bound to mRNA and is likely to affect translation. It appears in two size variants, p40 and p50. We further analysed the two size variants and their interaction with mRNA. Southern blot analysis, in situ hybridization and RT-PCR analysis suggested that there is just one YB-1 gene, and that the two size variants represent splicing isoforms. In a C. tentans epithelial cell line, only p40 is present, whereas both variants appear together in eight tissues from fourth-instar larvae, although in somewhat different proportions. Furthermore, the appearance of the two isoforms was studied in relation to a specific 35,40 kb mRNA transcript in the salivary glands, the Balbiani ring mRNA. Because of their exceptional size, Balbiani ring messenger ribonucleoprotein particles in nucleoplasm and Balbiani ring polysomes in cytoplasm could be identified and selectively studied. We were able to establish that both isoforms are associated with both nuclear and cytoplasmic Balbiani ring mRNA. In addition, a p50-specific antibody coimmunoprecipitated p40 from Balbiani ring polysomes, suggesting that the two splicing isoforms are located along the same Balbiani ring mRNA molecule. The functional significance of the two isoforms is being discussed. [source] Three mammalian cytochromes b561 are ascorbate-dependent ferrireductasesFEBS JOURNAL, Issue 16 2006Dan Su Cytochromes b561 are a family of transmembrane proteins found in most eukaryotic cells. Three evolutionarily closely related mammalian cytochromes b561 (chromaffin granule cytochrome b, duodenal cytochrome b, and lysosomal cytochrome b) were expressed in a Saccharomyces cerevisiae,fre1,fre2 mutant, which lacks almost all of its plasma membrane ferrireductase activity, to study their ability to reduce ferric iron (Fe3+). The expression of each of these cytochromes b561 was able to rescue the growth defect of the ,fre1,fre2 mutant cells in iron-deficient conditions, suggesting their involvement in iron metabolism. Plasma membrane ferrireductase activities were measured using intact yeast cells. Each cytochrome b561 showed significant FeCN and Fe3+ -EDTA reductase activities that were dependent on the presence of intracellular ascorbate. Site-directed mutagenesis of lysosomal cytochrome b was conducted to identify amino acids that are indispensable for its activity. Among more than 20 conserved or partially conserved amino acids that were investigated, mutations of four His residues (H47, H83, H117 and H156), one Tyr (Y66) and one Arg (R67) completely abrogated the FeCN reductase activity, whereas mutations of Arg (R149), Phe (F44), Ser (S115), Trp (W119), Glu (E196), and Gln (Q131) affected the ferrireductase activity to some degree. These mutations may affect the heme coordination, ascorbate binding, and/or ferric substrate binding. Possible roles of these residues in lysosomal cytochrome b are discussed. This study demonstrates the ascorbate-dependent transmembrane ferrireductase activities of members of the mammalian cytochrome b561 family of proteins. [source] Molecular and functional characterization of a novel splice variant of ANKHD1 that lacks the KH domain and its role in cell survival and apoptosiscFEBS JOURNAL, Issue 16 2005Melissa C. Miles Multiple ankyrin repeat motif-containing proteins play an important role in protein,protein interactions. ANKHD1 proteins are known to possess multiple ankyrin repeat domains and a single KH domain with no known function. Using yeast two-hybrid system analysis, we identified a novel splice variant of ANKHD1. This splice variant of ANKHD1, which we designated as HIV-1 Vpr-binding ankyrin repeat protein (VBARP), does not contain the signature KH domain, and codes for only a single ankyrin repeat motif. We characterized VBARP by molecular and functional analysis, revealing that VBARP is ubiquitously expressed in different tissues as well as cell lines of different lineage. In addition, blast searches indicated that orthologs and homologs to VBARP exist in different phyla, suggesting that VBARP might be evolutionarily conserved, and thus may be involved in basic cellular function(s). Furthermore, biochemical analysis revealed the presence of two VBARP isoforms coding for 69 and 49 kDa polypeptides, respectively, that are primarily localized in the cytoplasm. Functional analysis using short interfering RNA approaches indicate that this gene product is essential for cell survival through its regulation of caspases. Taken together, these results indicate that VBARP is a novel splice variant of ANKHD1 and may play a role in cellular apoptosis (antiapoptotic) and cell survival pathway(s). [source] Apoptosis-inhibiting activities of BIR family proteins in Xenopus egg extractsFEBS JOURNAL, Issue 9 2005Yuichi Tsuchiya In many animal species including Xenopus, ovulated eggs possess an intrinsic apoptotic execution system. This program is inhibited for a limited time by some maternal apoptosis inhibitors, although their molecular properties remain uncharacterized. Baculovirus IAP repeat (BIR) family proteins contain evolutionarily conserved BIR domains and play important roles in apoptosis suppression, and are therefore good candidates as maternal apoptosis inhibitors. We identified four maternal BIR family proteins in Xenopus eggs and, using the biochemical advantages of egg extracts, examined their physiological functions. These molecules included two survivin-related proteins, xEIAP/XLX, and a possible ortholog of XIAP named xXIAP. The addition of recombinant xXIAP greatly delayed apoptotic execution, whereas the immunodepletion of endogenous xXIAP significantly accelerated the onset of apoptosis. In contrast, xEIAP/XLX was a poor apoptosis inhibitor, and neither of the survivin orthologs showed anti-apoptotic activity in our assay. Both xEIAP/XLX and xXIAP were degraded by activated caspases, and also by a novel proteolytic system that required the presence of C-terminal RING finger domain but was insensitive to proteasome inhibition. Our data suggest that the regulation of endogenous xXIAP concentration is important for the survival of Xenopus eggs. [source] Nuclear import and DNA-binding activity of RFX1FEBS JOURNAL, Issue 10 2001Evidence for an autoinhibitory mechanism RFX1 binds and regulates the enhancers of a number of viruses and cellular genes. RFX1 belongs to the evolutionarily conserved RFX protein family that shares a DNA-binding domain and a conserved C-terminal region. In RFX1 this conserved region mediates dimerization, and is followed by a unique C-terminal tail, containing a highly acidic stretch. In HL-60 cells nuclear translocation of RFX1 is regulated by protein kinase C with unknown mechanisms. By confocal fluorescence microscopy, we have identified a nonclassical nuclear localization signal (NLS) at the extreme C-terminus. The adjacent ,acidic region', which showed no independent NLS activity, potentiated the function of the NLS. Subcellular fractionation showed that the tight association of RFX1 with the nucleus is mediated by its DNA-binding domain and enhanced by the dimerization domain. In contrast, the acidic region inhibited nuclear association, by down-regulating the DNA-binding activity of RFX1. These data suggest an autoinhibitory interaction, which may regulate the function of RFX1 at the level of DNA binding. The C-terminal tail thus constitutes a composite localization domain, which on the one hand mediates nuclear import of RFX1, and on the other hand inhibits its association with the nucleus and binding to DNA. The participation of the acidic region in both activities suggests a mechanism by which the nuclear import and DNA-binding activity of RFX1 may be coordinately regulated by phosphorylation by kinases such as PKC. [source] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||