Ethnic Identity (ethnic + identity)

Distribution by Scientific Domains
Distribution within Humanities and Social Sciences


Selected Abstracts


Assimilation, Ethnic Competition, and Ethnic Identities of U.S.-Born Persons of Mexican Origin

INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION REVIEW, Issue 3 2002
Hiromi Ono
Processes governing the ethnic identification of second and later generations of Mexican immigrant descendants are explored empirically using the Latino National Political Survey, 1989,1990. With multinomial logit regressions, I test hypotheses based on three contrasting perspectives, namely, that ethnic identification, or identification other than "American," arises directly from: a) cultural continuity and a lower level of assimilation; b) an experience of ethnic competition; and c) both processes. The results from the LNPS support the view that both processes are at work. For example, consistent with the presence of an assimilation process, the chance of "Mexican" identification (as opposed to "American" identification) declines to half in the third generation and to one tenth in the fourth and later generations, relative to the chance in the second generation. Consistent with the presence of an ethnic competition process, (perceived) experience of discrimination doubles the respondent's chance of "Mexican" identification. Also, a level rise in the darkness of skin color is associated with a 60 percent increase in the chance of Mexican identification. [source]


China's Minorities, Cultural Change, and Ethnic Identity

HISTORY COMPASS (ELECTRONIC), Issue 1 2005
Donald S. Sutton
China's non-Han ethnic groups have been precipitated both through assimilation and territorial expulsion at the hands of the agriculturalists who gradually formed the Han Chinese majority and became the basis of empire, and by the last dynasty's incorporation of the thinly populated regions to the west and north. Recent research distinguishes assimilation from acculturation, indicating that both may occur at local initiative on local terms, and in the non-Han as well as the Han direction. New ethnicities have emerged through ecological adaptation and isolation. China's recognized minorities continue to play an important role in defining both the self-image of Han Chinese and China's identity as a modern nation-state. [source]


Racist Events and Ethnic Identity in Low Income, African Americans

JOURNAL OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, Issue 6 2006
Alissa Sherry
This study was designed to determine the relation between racist events and ethnic identity in a group of 100 low-income African Americans. Findings indicated that the more racist events one experienced, the more ethnic behaviors they endorsed and the more they had explored the meaning of their ethnic background. In addition, racist events were also indicative of feeling less close to individuals of other ethnic groups. Results suggest that experiencing racist events may contribute to an increased identification with one's own ethnic background and less affiliation with those of other ethnic backgrounds, with the cumulative effect of racist events over one's lifetime contributing the most to this finding. [source]


The Impact of Multiple Dimensions of Ethnic Identity on Discrimination and Adolescents' Self-Estees

JOURNAL OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, Issue 11 2003
Andrea J. Romero
The rejection-identification model is investigated with multiple dimensions of ethnic identity in a sample of Mexican American youth. It is hypothesized that more perceived discrimination will be associated with higher ethnic identity in general, but that the multiple dimensions of ethnic identity will be associated differentially with discrimination. Higher perceived discrimination will be associated with more ethnic exploration and less ethnic affirmation. Self-report questionnaires were completed by middle school students of Mexican descent (N= 881). Based on structural equation modeling, the data were found to fit the rejection-identification model (p < .05). Higher discrimination was associated with lower ethnic affirmation (p < .05) and lower ethnic exploration (p < .05). Post hoc analyses indicated a significant interaction between discrimination and ethnic affirmation (p < .01) such that youth with high ethnic affirmation who experienced high discrimination still reported high self-esteem. The findings are discussed in the context of understanding methods of coping with prejudice and discrimination that will enhance the mental well-being of minority youth. [source]


Longitudinal Trajectories of Ethnic Identity During the College Years

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE, Issue 4 2009
Moin Syed
The goals of this study were to examine trajectories of change in ethnic identity during the college years and to explore group-level and individual-level variations. Participants were 175 diverse college students who completed indices of ethnic identity exploration and commitment, self-esteem, and domain-general identity resolution. Multilevel modeling analyses indicated that exploration and commitment continued to increase during the college years. Although there were ethnic differences in initial levels of ethnic identity, the rate of change did not vary by ethnicity. Domain-general identity was positively associated with exploration and commitment and mediated the association between self-esteem and commitment. The findings highlight the ongoing development of ethnic identity beyond adolescence and suggest that ethnic identity is part of the larger identity project. [source]


Ethnic Labels and Ethnic Identity as Predictors of Drug Use among Middle School Students in the Southwest

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE, Issue 1 2001
Flavio Francisco Marsiglia
This article explores differences in the self-reported drug use and exposure to drugs of an ethnically diverse group of 408 seventh-grade students from a large city in the southwest. We contrast the explanatory power of ethnic labels (African American, non-Hispanic White, Mexican American, and mixed ethnicity) and two dimensions of ethnic identity in predicting drug use. One dimension focuses on perceived ethnically consistent behavior, speech, and looks, while the other gauges a sense of ethnic pride. Ethnic labels were found to be somewhat useful in identifying differences in drug use, but the two ethnic identity measures, by themselves, did not generally help to explain differences in drug use. In conjunction, however, ethnic labels and ethnic identity measures explained far more of the differences in drug use than either did alone. The findings indicate that the two dimensions of ethnic identity predict drug outcomes in opposite ways, and these relations are different for minority students and non-Hispanic White students. Generally, African American, Mexican American, and mixed-ethnicity students with a strong sense of ethnic pride reported less drug use and exposure, while ethnically proud White students reported more. Ethnic minority students who viewed their behavior, speech, and looks as consistent with their ethnic group reported more drug use and exposure, while their White counterparts reported less. These findings are discussed, and recommendations for future research are provided. [source]


We Are Few: Folklore and Ethnic Identity of the Jewish Community of Ioannina, Greece by Annette B. Fromm

AMERICAN ETHNOLOGIST, Issue 2 2010
ANDREW BUCKSER
No abstract is available for this article. [source]


Yaqui Homeland and Homeplace: The Everyday Production of Ethnic Identity by Kirstin C. Erickson

AMERICAN ETHNOLOGIST, Issue 1 2010
JASON ANTROSIO
No abstract is available for this article. [source]


Religion and the Politics of Ethnic Identity by Stephen Selka

AMERICAN ETHNOLOGIST, Issue 4 2009
REBECCA SELIGMAN
No abstract is available for this article. [source]


Schooling, Language, and Ethnic Identity in the Basque Autonomous Community

ANTHROPOLOGY & EDUCATION QUARTERLY, Issue 4 2003
Professor Begoña Echeverria
Basque-versus Spanish-schooled students in San Sebastian, Spain, understand ethnic identity differently. The former are more likely to speak Basque and to consider the Basque language key to Basque identity. The latter are more likely to claim "biethnic" identities based on territory. The Basque case suggests that an understanding of educational efforts to reverse language shift require an examination of the language ideologies reigning in popular culture, the public sphere, and the home and school domains. [source]


Contextual Influences on Latino Adolescent Ethnic Identity and Academic Outcomes

CHILD DEVELOPMENT, Issue 5 2006
Andrew J. Supple
This study examined the association between 3 components of ethnic identity (exploration, resolution, and affirmation) and factors related to family, neighborhood, and individual characteristics. The purpose was to identity factors that are positively associated with adolescent ethnic identity among a sample of 187 Latino adolescents with a mean age of 14.61. The findings suggested that family ethnic socialization was directly associated with exploration and resolution, but not ethnic affirmation. Analyses with moderator variables suggested that associations between family ethnic socialization and ethnic affirmation varied based on parental behaviors and neighborhood characteristics. The results also suggested that ethnic affirmation, but not exploration or resolution, was positively associated with teacher reports of school performance. [source]


Daily Variation in Ethnic Identity, Ethnic Behaviors, and Psychological Well,Being among American Adolescents of Chinese Descent

CHILD DEVELOPMENT, Issue 5 2002
Tiffany Yip
This study examined the links among Chinese American adolescents' (N= 96) global ethnic identity and their ethnic behaviors, ethnic identity salience, and psychological well,being based on daily diaries collected over a 2,week period. The daily association between engagement in ethnic behaviors and ethnic salience was positive regardless of overall ethnic identity. The daily,level association between ethnic identity salience and well,being, however, was dependent on adolescents' global ethnic identity. Among adolescents who were moderate or high in global ethnic identity, ethnic identity salience was consistently associated with positive well,being at the daily level. In contrast, the daily association between ethnic identity salience and well,being was less strong for youths who were low in ethnic identity. Additionally, a higher level of salience and a weaker association between salience and negative symptoms was found for girls than for boys, and older youths reported a weaker association between salience and positive symptoms than did younger youths. [source]


Ethnic identity in urban African American youth: Exploring links with self-worth, aggression, and other psychosocial variables

JOURNAL OF COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY, Issue 4 2002
Susan D. McMahon
This study represents an attempt to examine the relative influences of ethnic identity and global self-worth on aggression, coping, and adjustment among urban African American adolescents. Findings suggest that ethnic identity was associated with a range of positive feelings about oneself and health-related outcomes. When taking into account global self-worth, youth with a greater sense of ethnic/racial identity reported more active coping strategies, fewer beliefs supporting aggression, and fewer aggressive behaviors. A strong positive sense of global self-worth was significantly related to lower levels of anxiety and depression, and greater beliefs supporting aggressive behavior, when taking into account ethnic identity. Examining these constructs in combination can yield insight into the processes involved in competence and adjustment among at-risk youth. This study suggests that ethnic identity is an important component of development, and that we should consider examining and strengthening ethnoracial and political consciousness among youth in preventive interventions. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [source]


Rubber Erasures, Rubber Producing Rights: Making Racialized Territories in West Kalimantan, Indonesia

DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGE, Issue 1 2009
Nancy Lee Peluso
ABSTRACT This article makes connections between often-disparate literatures on property, violence and identity, using the politics of rubber growing in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, as an example. It shows how rubber production gave rise to territorialities associated with and productive of ethnic identities, depending on both the political economies and cultural politics at play in different moments. What it meant to be Chinese and Dayak in colonial and post-colonial Indonesia, as well as how categories of subjects and citizens were configured in the two respective periods, differentially affected both the formal property rights and the means of access to rubber and land in different parts of West Kalimantan. However, incremental changes in shifting rubber production practices were not the only means of producing territory and ethnicity. The author argues that violence ultimately played a more significant role in erasing prior identity-based claims and establishing the controls of new actors over trees and land and their claims to legitimate access or ,rightfulness'. Changing rubber production practices and reconfigurations of racialized territories and identity-based property rights are all implicated in hiding the violence. [source]


The Changing Fortunes of Early Medieval Bavaria to 907 ad

HISTORY COMPASS (ELECTRONIC), Issue 4 2010
Jonathan Couser
This essay surveys the political historiography of the early medieval principality of Bavaria, particularly in three periods; that of the Bavarians' emergence in the sixth century, the time of a complex interrelationship between Bavarians and Franks and their Agilolfing and Carolingian ruling houses in the eighth century, and the transitions of power from Charlemagne's takeover of Bavaria in 788 and the transfer to a new Luitpolding duchy in 907. The Bavarian case serves as a useful counternarrative to those of larger peoples like the Franks or Lombards, and illustrates that the inheritance of Roman tradition, the relationship between rulers and ruled, and the creation and maintenance of ethnic identities could be flexible and complex in the early Middle Ages. [source]


Religion and Ethnicity Among New Immigrants: The Impact of Majority/Minority Status in Home and Host Countries

JOURNAL FOR THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF RELIGION, Issue 3 2001
Fenggang Yang
Research shows that religion continues to be an important identity marker for new immigrants in the United States. However, immigrant groups differ in the ways they integrate religious and ethnic identities and the emphasis they place on each. In this paper, we argue that majority or minority status of their religious affiliation in the home and host countries is an important, but overlooked, factor in understanding strategies concerning religious and ethnic identities. By comparing two Chinese congregations, a Chinese Buddhist temple and a Chinese Christian church in Houston, Texas, we analyze what happens when an immigrant group moves from majority status in the home country to minority status in the United States (Chinese Buddhists) and when a minority group (Chinese Christians in China) become part of the Christian majority in the United States. We conclude by arguing the importance of going beyond U.S. borders and taking into account factors in their home countries in attempts to understand patterns of adaptation of the new immigrants. [source]


Representations of ethnicity in people's accounts of local community participation in a multi-ethnic community in England

JOURNAL OF COMMUNITY & APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, Issue 1 2002
Catherine Campbell
Abstract In this paper we examine the impact of the social construction of ethnic identities on the likelihood of local community participation. We do so in the context of an applied interest in the current policy emphasis on partnerships between government and local communities in initiatives to reduce health inequalities, and a conceptual interest in the role of social representations in perpetuating unequal power hierarchies. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 75 residents of a deprived multi-ethnic area in south England. Informants described themselves as African-Caribbean, Pakistani and White English; half men and half women, aged 15,75. We draw attention to the way in which ethnic identities may be constructed in ways that undermine the likelihood of local community participation. Stereotypical representations of ethnically defined ingroups and outgroups (the ethnic ,other') constituted key symbolic resources used by our informants in accounting for their low levels of engagement with local community networks. We examine the content of these stereotypes, and highlight how their construction is shaped by historical, economic and social forces, within the context of the ,institutional racism' that exists in England. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source]


Subjective realities: Perceptions of identity and conflict in Ghana and Nigeria

JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT, Issue 4 2009
Arnim Langer
Abstract Drawing on perceptions survey research conducted in Ghana and Nigeria, this article explores whether differences in the salience of ethnic and religious identities and interethnic and religious attitudes and interaction, might contribute to explaining the different histories of violence and conflict in these two countries. Based on the finding that ethnic identities are more salient in the Nigerian sampled communities than in the Ghanaian ones, whereas national and occupational identities are more salient in Ghana than in Nigeria, the authors suggest that ethnic mobilisation is more likely to be successful in Nigeria than in Ghana. The authors argue that this finding could possibly explain why Nigeria has experienced more incidents of violent conflicts along ethnic lines than Ghana; although the causality is likely to go both ways. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source]


,I'm Mexican, remember?' Constructing ethnic identities via authenticating discourse1

JOURNAL OF SOCIOLINGUISTICS, Issue 2 2007
Petra Scott Shenk
This paper examines how an ideology of cultural authenticity emerges in the casual but playful conversations of a bilingual Mexican American friendship group. Authenticating discourse, as illustrated here, is part of an ongoing, ordinary interactional routine through which speakers take overt (authentication) stances, which I call authenticating moves, to display, impugn, vie for, and enact forms of ethnic identity. In the data, issues of authenticity in relation to Mexicanness emerge as a result of the interactional exploitation of three ideological constructs: purity of bloodline, purity of nationality, and Spanish linguistic fluency. [source]


To be or not to be: An exploration of ethnic identity development in context

NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD & ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT, Issue 120 2008
Niobe Way
This qualitative study focused on the intersection of personal and ethnic identities among forty African American, Puerto Rican, Dominican, and Chinese American high school students. The patterns in content indicated that for the Puerto Ricans, the intersection of their personal and social identities was a series of accommodations to a positive peer climate and a resistance to being Dominican. For the other ethnic groups, the intersection of their personal and social identities consisted of a process of resistance and accommodation to negative stereotypes projected on them by their peers and, for African Americans, themselves. © Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [source]


Forbidden intimacies: Christian,Muslim intermarriage in East Kalimantan, Indonesia

AMERICAN ETHNOLOGIST, Issue 3 2009
JENNIFER CONNOLLY
ABSTRACT As a disadvantaged minority, Dayaks have turned to Christianity as a way to maintain their ethnic identity in the face of threats from their Muslim neighbors. Given Indonesian state policies' compelling conversion in the case of interfaith marriage, most anthropological analyses would attribute the anguish Christian Dayaks experience over such marriages to the threat it poses to their community-building efforts. But Dayaks themselves anchor their concerns about intermarriage in religious and familial obligations, not in the maintenance of collective religious and ethnic identities. Drawing on the work of Fredrik Barth, I argue that understanding the nature of interfaith marriage and the fears it arouses requires anthropologists to consider not only the macrolevel of state policies and the median level of collective identities but also the more intimate emotional and experiential level of the family and the individual. [marriage, Indonesia, Islam, Christianity, ethnicity] [source]


Body, nation, and consubstantiation in Bolivian ritual meals

AMERICAN ETHNOLOGIST, Issue 4 2006
SUSAN PAULSON
During a remarkable period of official ethnic recognition and indigenous political mobilization in Bolivia, farmers in the rural Municipality of Mizque have invested increasing energy in ritual meals widely characterized as indigenous, expanding the number of meals celebrated and increasing their spatial distribution. Multisited ethnographic study of how people connect to body, place, and identity shows that the intense corporal experiences and tangible materiality of these ritual meals contrast with tendencies of official multiculturalism to privilege symbols and products of indigenous culture while disregarding the substance of indigenous bodies and the material bases of their survival. Consubstantiation in ritual meals resonates with other collective bodily practices that are gaining prominence in Bolivia, including mass manifestations and constituent assemblies, to point toward possibilities for a new kind of civil society grounded in concern for the ethnic identities and for the bodily and material subsistence of its diverse members. [source]


Political Competition and Ethnic Identification in Africa

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF POLITICAL SCIENCE, Issue 2 2010
Benn Eifert
This article draws on data from over 35,000 respondents in 22 public opinion surveys in 10 countries and finds strong evidence that ethnic identities in Africa are strengthened by exposure to political competition. In particular, for every month closer their country is to a competitive presidential election, survey respondents are 1.8 percentage points more likely to identify in ethnic terms. Using an innovative multinomial logit empirical methodology, we find that these shifts are accompanied by a corresponding reduction in the salience of occupational and class identities. Our findings lend support to situational theories of social identification and are consistent with the view that ethnic identities matter in Africa for instrumental reasons: because they are useful in the competition for political power. [source]


Dealing with Diversity in the Construction of Indigenous Autonomy in the Sierra Norte of Oaxaca

BULLETIN OF LATIN AMERICAN RESEARCH, Issue 3 2008
ROSA GUADALUPE MENDOZA ZUANY
Building autonomy in the Sierra Norte of Oaxaca has not depended on the development of Zapotec ethnic identities, isolation or rejection of the integration of outsiders into the communities. The communities of Ixtlán and Guelatao have developed strong local identities and strategies related to the appropriation of external legal categories, and the combination of these with their own customary practices to integrate newcomers into their social, political and economic organisation. Dialogue has been one of the main tools for building autonomy and achieve the integration of outsiders, while continuing the dynamic reproduction of their internal organisation and way of life. [source]


Ego Development and Ethnic Identity Formation in Rural American Indian Adolescents

CHILD DEVELOPMENT, Issue 3 2005
Denise L. Newman
Ethnic identity development was assessed in the context of ego development in 12- to 15-year-old students from a Southeastern American Indian community. Self-protective was the modal level and was characterized by awareness of ethnic group membership but little exploration or self-reflection. Impulsive adolescents had the least developed ethnic identities and highest levels of interpersonal vulnerability. Conformist adolescents expressed positive feelings about ethnic group affiliation, described relationships as harmonious, but demonstrated moderate social anxiety. Postconformist adolescents had the highest levels of agency, social competence, and identity achievement, but also had high levels of psychological distress and family conflict. Adolescent identity strivings may be understood in context with the level and timing of psychosocial maturity, for which ego development appears a useful marker. [source]


Viking and native: re,thinking identity in the Danelaw

EARLY MEDIEVAL EUROPE, Issue 1 2002
D.M. Hadley
This paper addresses the impact of the Scandinavian settlements in England in the ninth and tenth centuries, and the role that ethnic identity and affiliation played in the society of the so,called Danelaw. It is argued that ethnic identity was not a constant factor, but one that only became relevant, at least in the evidence available to us, at certain times. It is suggested that the key to understanding expressions of ethnicity lies in the absorption of new ruling elites in northern and eastern England, and in subsequent political manoeuvring, rather than in the scale of the Scandinavian settlement. Indeed, the scale of the settlement does not easily explain most of our evidence, with the exception of some of the linguistic data. This paper stresses the importance of discussing the Scandinavian settlements not simply by reference to ethnic factors, but within the social and political context of early medieval society. [source]


Diversity and Inclusion of Sociopolitical Issues in Foreign Language Classrooms: An Exploratory Survey

FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS, Issue 1 2003
Ryuko Kubota
ABSTRACT: One aim of foreign language teaching is to broaden learners' worldviews and promote intercultural communication. Less discussed, however, are domestic diversity and sociopolitical issues. Through a survey of university students of Japanese, Spanish, and Swahili, the authors of this study investigated diversity in the classroom, students' backgrounds and learning experiences, and their perceptions about the relationship between foreign language learning and issues of race, gender, class, and social justice. The study found more racial diversity in Japanese and Swahili than in Spanish classes and in beginning Spanish classes than in advanced Spanish classes. Beginning Spanish students related foreign language learning with social justice issues less frequently than did advanced students. A follow-up survey revealed stigmatized experiences and detachment from ethnic identity among some minority students. [source]


Family and nation: Brazilian national ideology as contested transnational practice in Japan

GLOBAL NETWORKS, Issue 4 2008
PAUL GREEN
Abstract Studies of Brazilian Nikkeis (Japanese emigrants and their descendants) living in Japan tend to conceptualize ,family' and ,nation' as two distinct entities. Such distinctions are filtered through mutually exclusive discourses and understandings of national and ethnic identity. In this article, however, I view national attachments and migrant experiences in Japan through the lens of ideology, embodied experience and kinship relations. Treating national ideology as lived process sheds fresh light on the dynamics of state,society relations in transnational social spaces. I suggest that the ability of Brazilian state actors to impose social, moral and economic regulation on its citizens in Japan is compromised by the extent to which such discourses are ontologically grounded in the social relations of migrant family life. It is through these kin ties, I argue, that people set the tone and rules of play for state interests to encroach or otherwise on their everyday lives in these transnational social spaces. [source]


Kabbalah: A Medieval Tradition and Its Contemporary Appeal

HISTORY COMPASS (ELECTRONIC), Issue 2 2008
Hava Tirosh-Samuelson
Popular culture today is suffused with kabbalah, an elitist, intellectual strand of medieval Judaism that claimed to disclose the esoteric meaning of the rabbinic tradition. While rooted in esoteric speculations in late antiquity, kabbalah emerged in the tenth century as an internal debate among Jewish theologians about the ontological status of divine attributes. At the end of the twelfth century speculations about the nature of God emerged among the Pietists of Germany and the ,masters of kabbalah' in Provence. During the thirteenth century kabbalah flourished in Spain where its self-understanding as redemptive activity was expressed in two paradigms , the ,theosophy-theurgic' and the ,ecstatic-prophetic'. Kabbalah continued to evolve in the early modern period, shaping both Jewish and European cultures. The modern period saw the rise of the academic study of kabbalah, but it was employed in two conflicting manners: in the nineteenth century scholars associated with the Enlightenment used historical analysis of kabbalah to debunk Jewish traditionalism, but in the first half of the twentieth century, the academic study of kabbalah was used to generate a secular, collective Zionist identity. Although scholarship on kabbalah has flourished in the twentieth century, kabbalah has become a variant of New-Age religions, accessible to all, regardless of ethnic identity or spiritual readiness. [source]


The contribution of ethnic and American identities to the migrant's self-esteem: an empirical investigation

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF APPLIED PSYCHOANALYTIC STUDIES, Issue 1 2006
Yu-Wen Ying
Abstract A psychoanalytic theory of migration postulates that migrants undergo a psychic restructuring which necessitates refueling by the culture of origin and/or its representatives (such as parents). During this time, ethnic identity is central to the migrant's self-esteem. With completion of the mourning processes, the migrant is psychically freed up to also identify with the new country. Over time, the new hybrid identity is consolidated, so that self-esteem is no longer determined by cultural or national identities. The current study empirically tested this postulation in three groups of Chinese migrants who varied in available resources in completing their psychic restructuring. As hypothesized, the function of Chinese and American identities in their self-esteem varied significantly at the time of the study and reflected differential degrees of post-migration identity consolidation. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source]