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Elimination Pathway (elimination + pathway)
Selected AbstractsPharmacokinetics of dipeptidylpeptidase-4 inhibitorsDIABETES OBESITY & METABOLISM, Issue 8 2010A. J. Scheen Type 2 diabetes (T2DM) is a complex disease combining defects in insulin secretion and insulin action. New compounds have been developed for improving glucose-induced insulin secretion and glucose control, without inducing hypoglycaemia or weight gain. Dipeptidylpeptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors are new oral glucose-lowering agents, so-called incretin enhancers, which may be used as monotherapy or in combination with other antidiabetic compounds. Sitagliptin, vildaglipin and saxagliptin are already on the market in many countries, either as single agents or in fixed-dose combined formulations with metformin. Other DPP-4 inhibitors, such as alogliptin and linagliptin, are currently in late phase of development. The present paper summarizes and compares the main pharmacokinetics (PK) properties, that is, absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination, of these five DPP-4 inhibitors. Available data were obtained in clinical trials performed in healthy young male subjects, patients with T2DM, and patients with either renal insufficiency or hepatic impairment. PK characteristics were generally similar in young healthy subjects and in middle-aged overweight patients with diabetes. All together gliptins have a good oral bioavailability which is not significantly influenced by food intake. PK/pharmacodynamics characteristics, that is, sufficiently prolonged half-life and sustained DPP-4 enzyme inactivation, generally allow one single oral administration per day for the management of T2DM; the only exception is vildagliptin for which a twice-daily administration is recommended because of a shorter half-life. DPP-4 inhibitors are in general not substrates for cytochrome P450 (except saxagliptin that is metabolized via CYP 3A4/A5) and do not act as inducers or inhibitors of this system. Several metabolites have been documented but most of them are inactive; however, the main metabolite of saxagliptin also exerts a significant DPP-4 inhibition and is half as potent as the parent compound. Renal excretion is the most important elimination pathway, except for linagliptin whose metabolism in the liver appears to be predominant. PK properties of gliptins, combined with their good safety profile, explain why no dose adjustment is necessary in elderly patients or in patients with mild to moderate hepatic impairment. As far as patients with renal impairment are concerned, significant increases in drug exposure for sitagliptin and saxagliptin have been reported so that appropriate reductions in daily dosages are recommended according to estimated glomerular filtration rate. The PK characteristics of DPP-4 inhibitors suggest that these compounds are not exposed to a high risk of drug,drug interactions. However, the daily dose of saxagliptin should be reduced when coadministered with potent CYP 3A4 inhibitors. In conclusion, besides their pharmacodynamic properties leading to effective glucose-lowering effect without inducing hypoglycaemia or weight gain, DPP-4 inhibitors show favourable PK properties, which contribute to a good efficacy/safety ratio for the management of T2DM in clinical practice. [source] Dietary accumulation, disposition, and metabolism of technical pentabrominated diphenyl ether (DE-71) in pregnant mink (Mustela vison) and their offspring,ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY & CHEMISTRY, Issue 5 2008Si Zhang Abstract Concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in humans and wildlife suggest significant bioaccumulation potential in mammals, but no quantitative biomagnification data from controlled experiments are currently available. As part of a larger study examining the effects of PBDEs on mink (Mustela vison) reproduction and development, we examined congener-specific tissue distribution, maternal transfer, biotransformation, and biomagnification of the technical penta-BDE mixture, DE-71, in farmed mink. Adult female mink were fed one of four concentrations of DE-71 (0-2.5 ,g/g) in the diet from breeding through gestation and until weaning at 6 weeks postparturition. Parent PBDEs were measured in tissues and excreta of adult mink, kits, and juveniles, whereas hydroxylated PBDEs (OH-PBDEs) were measured in juveniles only. Similar lipid-normalized concentrations of PBDEs were detected in most tissues of adult mink with the exception of brain, in which concentrations were significantly lower. Kits, however, had a higher proportion of PBDEs in brain compared with adults, presumably because of incomplete development of the blood-brain barrier. Maternal transfer favored lower-brominated PBDE congeners, and the bulk of the body burden in kits at weaning resulted from lactational rather than transplacental transfer. Lipid-normalized, whole-body biomagnification factors ranged from 0.5 to 5.2 for the major congeners and were highest for BDEs 47 and 153. Metabolism clearly limited the biomagnification of some PBDEs, and OH-PBDEs were detectable in plasma, liver, and feces. On a mass basis, OH-PBDEs accounted for 28 to 32% of the excreted fraction, indicating metabolism was an important elimination pathway. Further studies are required to understand the mechanisms of PBDE biotransformation. [source] Preparation of halogenated derivatives of thiazolo[5,4- d]thiazole via direct electrophilic aromatic substitutionJOURNAL OF HETEROCYCLIC CHEMISTRY, Issue 3 2008Vladimir Benin Chlorination and bromination reactions of thiazolo[5,4- d]thiazole led to the generation of its mono- and dihalogenated derivatives. These are the first instances of successful direct electrophilic aromatic substitution in the thiazolo[5,4- d]thiazole ring system. X-ray analysis demonstrates that both 2-bromothiazolo[5,4- d]-thiazole and 2,5-dibromothiazolo[5,4- d]thiazole are planar structures, with strongly manifested ,-stacking in the solid state. Theoretical analysis of the pyridine-catalyzed halogenation (MP2/6-31+G(d) and B3LYP/6-31+G(d) calculations) reveals that introduction of one halogen actually leads to a slightly enhanced reactivity towards further halogenation. Several halogenation mechanisms have been investigated: 1) The direct C-halogenation with N-halopyridine as electrophile; 2) C-halogenation via intermediate N-halogenation, and 3) C-halogenation following an addition - elimination pathway, with intermediate formation of a cyclic halonium ion. The theoretical studies suggest that the direct C-halogenation is the favored mechanism. [source] Correlation of the rates of solvolysis of benzoyl chloride and derivatives using extended forms of the Grunwald,Winstein equation,JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, Issue 12 2002Dennis N. Kevill Abstract Available specific rates of solvolysis at 25,°C of benzoyl chloride and four para -substituted derivatives for which both NT and YCl values are tabulated were analyzed using the extended (two-term) Grunwald,Winstein equation. The ionization pathway with appreciable nucleophilic solvation of the incipient carbocation observed for the p -methoxy derivative is accompanied by increasingly important regions of dominant operation of an addition,elimination pathway as the Hammett , value for the substituent increases. Accordingly, for the p -nitro derivative only the 97% HFIP data point deviates from the addition,elimination correlation. Correlations of the specific rates of solvolysis of 2,6-dimethylbenzoyl chloride are improved by incorporation of a term governed by the aromatic ring parameter (I). Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Everolimus drug interactions: application of a classification system for clinical decision makingBIOPHARMACEUTICS AND DRUG DISPOSITION, Issue 9 2006John M. Kovarik Abstract Introduction. More than half of all drugs used in medical practice are metabolized by cytochrome CYP3A. Coadministration of drugs that share this elimination pathway may lead to pharmacokinetic drug interactions. Efforts are underway by clinical, drug development and regulatory scientists to classify CYP3A-related drug interactions with the ultimate goal of improving guidance for clinical intervention. The CYP3A inhibitory classification system ranks inhibitors according to the fold-increase in area-under-the-curve (AUC) of a probe substrate as: strong (,5-fold), moderate (>2.0- to 4.9-fold), or weak (,2.0-fold). This classification system was applied to characterize everolimus as a CYP3A substrate. Methods. Five open-label crossover drug interaction studies were performed in 12,16 healthy subjects each. Subjects received a single 2 mg dose of everolimus alone and again during single- or multiple-dose treatment with the probe inhibitors ketoconazole, erythromycin, verapamil, cyclosporine and atorvastatin. Results. The fold-increase in everolimus AUC was: 15.0 with the strong inhibitor ketoconazole; 4.4, 3.5 and 2.7 with the moderate inhibitors erythromycin, verapamil and cyclosporine; and no change with the weak inhibitor atorvastatin. Subjects with low baseline AUCs when everolimus was given alone tended to have AUC increases of a higher magnitude (more potent interaction) in the presence of an inhibitor. Conclusions. Strong CYP3A inhibitors should be avoided when possible during everolimus treatment as compensatory everolimus dose reductions could be difficult to manage. Everolimus therapeutic drug monitoring should be used to guide individualized dose adjustments when moderate CYP3A inhibitors are added to or withdrawn from the regimen. Routine everolimus therapeutic drug monitoring should be sufficient to determine whether dose adjustments are needed when weak CYP3A inhibitors are coadministered. This rational and systematic approach to drug interactions on everolimus yielded clinically useful, structured guidelines for dose adjustment. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Can Weakly Coordinating Anions Stabilize Mercury in Its Oxidation State +IV?CHEMISTRY - A EUROPEAN JOURNAL, Issue 9 2005Sebastian Riedel Dipl.-Chem. Abstract While the thermochemical stability of gas-phase HgF4 against F2 elimination was predicted by accurate quantum chemical calculations more than a decade ago, experimental verification of "truly transition-metal" mercury(IV) chemistry is still lacking. This work uses detailed density functional calculations to explore alternative species that might provide access to condensed-phase HgIV chemistry. The structures and thermochemical stabilities of complexes HgIVX4 and HgIVF2X2 (X,=AlF4,, Al2F7,, AsF6,, SbF6,, As2F11,, Sb2F11,, OSeF5,, OTeF5,) have been assessed and are compared with each other, with smaller gas-phase HgX4 complexes, and with known related noble gas compounds. Most species eliminate F2 exothermically, with energies ranging from only about ,60 kJ,mol,1 to appreciable ,180 kJ,mol,1. The lower stability of these species compared to gas-phase HgF4 is due to relatively high coordination numbers of six in the resulting HgII complexes that stabilize the elimination products. Complexes with AsF6 ligands appear more promising than their SbF6 analogues, due to differential aggregation effects in the HgII and HgIV states. HgF2X2 complexes with X,=OSeF5, or OTeF5, exhibit endothermic fluorine elimination and relatively weak interactions in the HgII products. However, elimination of the peroxidic (OEF5)2 coupling products of these ligands provides an alternative exothermic elimination pathway with energies between ,120 and ,130 kJ,mol,1. While all of the complexes investigated here thus have one exothermic decomposition channel, there is indirect evidence that the reactions should exhibit nonnegligible activation barriers. A number of possible synthetic pathways towards the most interesting condensed-phase HgIV target complexes are proposed. [source] Ligand Effects on the Mechanisms of Thermal Bond Activation in the Gas-Phase Reactions NiX+/CH4,Ni(CH3)+/HX (X=H, CH3, OH, F).HELVETICA CHIMICA ACTA, Issue 12 2008Short Communication Abstract The thermal ion-molecule reactions NiX++CH4,Ni(CH3)++HX (X=H, CH3, OH, F) have been studied by mass spectrometric methods, and the experimental data are complemented by density functional theory (DFT)-based computations. With regard to mechanistic aspects, a rather coherent picture emerges such that, for none of the systems studied, oxidative addition/reductive elimination pathways are involved. Rather, the energetically most favored variant corresponds to a , -complex-assisted metathesis (, -CAM). For X=H and CH3, the ligand exchange follows a ,two-state reactivity (TSR)' scenario such that, in the course of the thermal reaction, a twofold spin inversion, i.e., triplet,singlet,triplet, is involved. This TSR feature bypasses the energetically high-lying transition state of the adiabatic ground-state triplet surface. In contrast, for X=F, the exothermic ligand exchange proceeds adiabatically on the triplet ground state, and some arguments are proposed to account for the different behavior of NiX+/Ni(CH3)+ (X=H, CH3) vs. NiF+. While the couple Ni(OH)+/CH4 does not undergo a thermal ligand switch, the DFT computations suggest a potential-energy surface that is mechanistically comparable to the NiF+/CH4 system. Obviously, the ligands X act as a mechanistic distributor to switch between single vs. two-state reactivity patterns. [source] Characterization of in vitro and in vivo metabolic pathways of the investigational anticancer agent, 2-methoxyestradiolJOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, Issue 7 2007Nehal J. Lakhani Abstract The aim of this study was to characterize the metabolic pathways of 2-methoxyestradiol (2ME2), an investigational anticancer drug. In vitro metabolism studies were performed by incubation of 2ME2 with human liver microsomes under various conditions and metabolite identification was performed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. In microsomal mixtures, four major oxidative metabolites and two glucuronic acid conjugates were observed originating from 2ME2. Human liver S9 protein fraction was used to screen for in vitro sulfation but no prominent conjugates were observed. The total hepatic clearance as estimated using the well-stirred model was approximately 712 mL/min. In vivo metabolism, assessed using 24-h collections of urine from cancer patients treated with 2ME2 revealed that <0.01% of the total administered dose of 2ME2 is excreted unchanged in urine and about 1% excreted as glucuronides. Collectively, this suggests that glucuronidation and subsequent urinary excretion are elimination pathways for 2ME2. © 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc. and the American Pharmacists Association J Pharm Sci 96: 1821,1831, 2007 [source] | |||||||||||||