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Control Mothers (control + mother)
Selected AbstractsPostnatal stress in mice: Does "stressing" the mother have the same effect as "stressing" the pups?DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOBIOLOGY, Issue 4 2004A. Moles Abstract Short- and long-term effects of brief maternal separation, maternal exposure to novel male odor, and standard rearing were compared in NMRI mice. The first condition consisted of 15 min of daily exposure of pups to clean bedding (CB), and the second condition consisted of 15 min of mothers' exposure to the odor of strange males (SM), for 14 days after birth starting from postnatal Day 1. Thus, both conditions entailed the same period of maternal separation. A control mother,offspring group was left undisturbed (nonhandled, N-H). Corticosterone levels of mothers and pups were measured at the end of the last manipulation session. Corticosterone levels were higher in SM mothers, differing from both those of CB and of control dams; CB pups showed the highest corticosterone levels in comparison with the pups belonging to the other groups. Maternal behavior observed as furthest as possible from the daily separation session did not differ among the three groups. The behavioral response to 0.5 mg/kg of apomorphine in 15-day-old pups was enhanced in both CB and SM animals, which suggests an alteration of dopaminergic functioning. Finally, adult CB and SM male mice showed an increase in the percentage of time and entries into the open arms of the plus-maze in comparison to nonhandled males. This study indicates that exposure to ecologically relevant stimuli elicited a stress response in lactating dams. This "social stress" brings about short- and long-term effects in the offspring, even in the absence of any direct manipulation of the pups. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Dev Psychobiol 44: 230,237, 2004. [source] Crying and Infant Abuse in Rhesus MonkeysCHILD DEVELOPMENT, Issue 2 2000Dario Maestripieri This study investigated the relation between crying and infant abuse in group-living rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). The subjects were 10 abusive mothers with their infants and 10 control mother , infant pairs. Abused infants cried more frequently than controls in the first 12 weeks of life, even when cries immediately following abuse were excluded from the analysis. The coos of 5 abused infants differed from those of 5 controls in several acoustic parameters, whereas their screams and geckers were acoustically similar, when recorded in the same context. Abusive mothers were less likely than control mothers to respond positively to the cries of their infants. Although infant cries may increase the probability of abuse being repeated, infant crying per se does not appear to be a major determinant of abuse. [source] Maternal Depression and the Ability to Facilitate Joint Attention With 18-Month-OldsINFANCY, Issue 1 2003Erin N. Henderson Maternal depression has been associated with the mother-child dyad's ability to engage in joint attention. This study of 69 depressed and 63 control mothers and their 18-month-olds addresses how aspects of maternal psychopathology are related to joint attention during a snack interaction. Although nondepressed-mother dyads appeared better at joint attention than depressed-mother dyads, this difference was not statistically significant. Among the depressed-mother dyads, joint attention was related to presence of a comorbid Axis I diagnosis (usually an anxiety disorder) versus a diagnosis of major depressive disorder (MDD) only. Surprisingly, dyads with mothers who met criteria for a comorbid diagnosis were better at joint attention than those with MDD only, despite the fact that those mothers were likely to have longer and more severe depressive histories. The relationship between comorbid status and joint attention was mediated by the mother's affect. Rationale for the paradoxical finding that the "more pathological" mothers had greater success in engaging in joint attention is discussed. [source] Sex-related effects of maternal egg investment on offspring in relation to carotenoid availability in the great titJOURNAL OF ANIMAL ECOLOGY, Issue 1 2008Anne Berthouly Summary 1Maternal carotenoids in the egg yolk have been hypothesized to promote maturation of the immune system and protect against free radical damages. Depending on availability, mothers may thus influence offspring quality by depositing variable amounts of carotenoids into the eggs. Sex allocation theory predicts that in good quality environments, females should invest into offspring of the sex that will provide larger fitness return, generally males. 2In a field experiment we tested whether female great tits bias their investment towards males when carotenoid availability is increased, and whether male offspring of carotenoid-supplemented mothers show higher body condition. We partially cross-fostered hatchlings to disentangle maternal effects from post-hatching effects, and manipulated hen flea Ceratophyllus gallinae infestation to investigate the relationship between carotenoid availability and resistance to ectoparasites. 3As predicted, we found that carotenoid-supplemented mothers produced males that were heavier than their sisters at hatching, while the reverse was true for control mothers. This suggests that carotenoid availability during egg production affects male and female hatchlings differentially, possibly via a differential allocation to male and female eggs. 4A main effect of maternal supplementation became visible 14 days after hatching when nestlings hatched from eggs laid by carotenoid-supplemented mothers had gained significantly more mass than control nestlings. Independently of the carotenoid treatment, fleas impaired mass gain of nestlings during the first 9 days in large broods only and reduced tarsus length of male nestlings at an age of 14 days, suggesting a cost to mount a defence against parasites. 5Overall, our results suggest that pre-laying availability of carotenoids affects nestling condition in a sex-specific way with potentially longer-lasting effects on offspring fitness. [source] Relationships Among Risk, Sense of Coherence, and Well-Being in Parents of Children With and Without Intellectual DisabilitiesJOURNAL OF POLICY AND PRACTICE IN INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES, Issue 4 2008Malin B. Olsson ABSTRACT The authors studied the nature and function of the relationships of the comparative level of risk, sense of coherence (SOC), and well-being, over time, in mothers and fathers of preschool children with and without intellectual disabilities (IDs). The hypothesis that SOC functions as a moderator between risk and well-being was tested. Parents of children with IDs (mothers: n = 62 (46 at follow-up) and fathers: n = 49 (37 at follow-up)) and control parents (mothers: n = 178 (131 at follow-up) and fathers: n = 141 (97 at follow-up)) answered self-report measures on risk factors (i.e., child behavior problems, negative impact on the family and socioeconomic situation) and sense of coherence. Well-being and quality of life were used as outcomes, and were measured at baseline and at a one-year follow-up. The hypothesis of moderation was tested conducting multiple linear regression analyses. The level of well-being was moderately stable over the two time points, with parents of children with ID having lower level of well-being than control parents both initially and after one year. Well-being was also related to level of SOC and cumulative risk with parents experiencing lower SOC or more risk also reporting lower well-being. The hypothesis of SOC acting as a moderator in the relation between cumulative risk and well-being found some support in the longitudinal analyses, but only for well-being (BDI-2r) among control mothers. [source] Hypospadias and maternal exposures to cigarette smokePAEDIATRIC & PERINATAL EPIDEMIOLOGY, Issue 6 2005Suzan L. Carmichael Summary The few previous studies of hypospadias and smoking have suggested either no association or a reduced risk. This study, which uses data from the National Birth Defects Prevention Study, a multi-state, population-based case,control study, includes data on males born with severe hypospadias (i.e. the urethra opens at the penile shaft, scrotum or perineum) from 1997 to 2000. Non-malformed, liveborn male controls were selected randomly from birth certificates or from birth hospitals. Maternal interviews were completed by telephone with 453 case mothers and 1267 control mothers. Maternal smoking was not associated with hypospadias risk. For example, during the third month of pregnancy, smoking < 0.5 pack/day had an odds ratio (OR) of 1.1 [95% CI 0.6, 1.9]; 0.5 pack/day, 0.6 [0.4, 1.1]; and ,,1 pack/day, 0.8 [0.4, 1.6]. Exposure to any secondhand smoke at home during the third month of pregnancy showed an OR of 0.6 [95% CI 0.4, 1.0], and exposure at work or school, an OR of 0.7 [0.5, 1.1]. Similar risks were observed for other months during the periconceptional period, and adjustment for several potential confounders did not substantially alter results. This analysis does not confirm a recent report suggesting that maternal smoking is associated with a reduced risk of having offspring with hypospadias. [source] Prenatal and intrapartum events and sudden infant death syndromePAEDIATRIC & PERINATAL EPIDEMIOLOGY, Issue 1 2002Hillary S. Klonoff-Cohen Summary The purpose of this study was to evaluate specific pregnancy and labour and delivery events that may increase the risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). A matched case,control study was conducted in five counties in southern California, using California death certificate records. The sample consisted of 239 Caucasian, African,American, Hispanic and Asian mothers of SIDS infants and 239 mothers of control infants matched on sex, race, birth hospital and date of birth. Mothers participated in a detailed telephone interview and provided access to obstetric and paediatric records. More case than control mothers reported a family history of anaemia (OR = 2.12, P < 0.001). Placental abruptions were strongly associated with SIDS (unadjusted OR = 7.94, [95% CI 1.34,47.12]). There was an increased risk of SIDS death associated with maternal anaemia during pregnancy (OR = 2.51, [95% CI 1.25,5.03]), while simultaneously adjusting for maternal smoking during pregnancy, maternal years of education and age, parity, infant birthweight, gestational age, medical conditions at birth, infant sleep position and post-natal smoking. Interactions of anaemia and prenatal smoking as well as anaemia and post-natal smoking were not statistically significant. There were no other statistically significant differences between case and control mothers for pregnancy conditions, labour and delivery events (e.g. caesarean sections, anaesthesia, forceps) or newborn complications (e.g. nuchal cord, meconium aspiration). Anaemia and placental abruptions were significantly associated with an increased risk of SIDS; both are circumstances in which a fetus may become hypoxic, thereby compromising the subsequent growth, development and ultimate survival of the infant. [source] Periconceptional nutrient intakes and risks of conotruncal heart defects,BIRTH DEFECTS RESEARCH, Issue 3 2010Gary M. Shaw Abstract BACKGROUND Few inquiries into periconceptional nutrition, other than folate, and risk of heart defects exist. We investigated the observed association between conotruncal heart defects and periconceptional vitamin use, as well as potential associations with other dietary nutrients. METHODS Data derived from a population-based, case-control study of fetuses and liveborn infants among California births between July 1999 and June 2004; 76% of eligible case mothers and 77% of eligible control mothers were interviewed. Cases included 140 with d-transposition of great arteries (dTGA), and 163 with tetralogy of Fallot (TOF). Total number of controls was 698. Use of vitamins was elicited by questionnaire for the periconceptional period. Dietary nutrient intake was elicited by a well-known food frequency questionnaire. RESULTS The odds ratio for dTGA associated with supplemental vitamin use was 1.0 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.7,1.5) and for TOF was 0.9 (95% CI, 0.6,1.3). We observed increased risks associated with lower dietary intakes of linoleic acid, total carbohydrate, and fructose for dTGA, whereas decreased risks were observed for lower intakes of total protein and methionine for TOF. Lower dietary intake of several micronutrients,namely folate, niacin, riboflavin, and vitamins B12, A, and E, even after simultaneous adjustment for other studied nutrients,was associated with increased risk of dTGA but not TOF. These associations were observed among women who did not use vitamin supplements periconceptionally. Analytic consideration of several potential confounders did not reveal alternative interpretations of the results. CONCLUSION Evidence continues to accumulate to show that nutrients, particularly folate, influence risks of structural birth defects. Our results extend observations that other nutrients may also be important in heart development. Birth Defects Research (Part A), 2010. © 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] Nutrient intakes in women and congenital diaphragmatic hernia in their offspring,BIRTH DEFECTS RESEARCH, Issue 3 2008Wei Yang Abstract BACKGROUND: Congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) is a severe birth defect where there is an opening in the diaphragm through which a portion of the abdominal contents protrudes into the thoracic cavity. The etiologies of CDH remain unknown, although experimental animal data suggest dietary factors might play a role. This study examined whether maternal nutrient intakes were associated with delivering infants with CDH. METHODS: We analyzed infants with isolated CDH who were born from 1997 to 2003 and recruited into the National Birth Defects Prevention Study (NBDPS), a multisite, population-based case-control study. Exposure data were obtained from telephone interviews, which were completed within 24 months after delivery, and were available for 377 case mothers and 5,008 control mothers. A food frequency questionnaire was used to derive nutrient intakes during the year before pregnancy. RESULTS: A crude OR of 0.6 (95% CI: 0.3,1.0) was observed for higher intake of choline. Elevated ORs (1.4 to 1.7) were found for lower intakes of choline, cysteine, methionine, and protein. Among women who took vitamin supplements, higher intakes of B vitamins (i.e., folate, vitamin B1, B2, B6, and B12), minerals (i.e., calcium, iron, magnesium, and zinc), and vitamin E were inversely associated with CDH (ORs from 0.7,0.3). Moreover, among women who did not take vitamin supplements, lower intakes of calcium, retinol, selenium, vitamin B12, and vitamin E had positive associations with CDH (ORs from 1.4 to 2.1). CONCLUSIONS: Our observations contribute to a limited body of evidence suggesting a woman's periconceptional diet might be associated with CDH in her offspring. Birth Defects Research (Part A), 2008. © 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] Metabolic effects and the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) polymorphism associated with neural tube defects in southern Brazil,BIRTH DEFECTS RESEARCH, Issue 7 2004Têmis Maria Félix Abstract BACKGROUND The importance of metabolic factors in neural tube defects (NTDs) has been the focus of many investigations. Several authors have suggested that abnormalities in homocysteine metabolism, such as hyperhomocysteinemia, folate deficiency, and low vitamin B12, may be responsible for these malformations and that both nutritional factors and genetic abnormalities are associated with them. METHODS We conducted a case-control study to investigate the influence of biochemical and genetic factors in NTDs in infants in southern Brazil. Levels of folate, vitamin B12, total homocysteine (t-Hcy) and the 677C>T and 1298A>C polymorphisms of the MTHFR gene were analyzed in 41 NTD child,mother pairs and 44 normal child,mother control pairs. RESULTS Subjects in the case group had a higher mean blood folate level than those in the control group. The level of vitamin B12 was lower in mothers in the NTD group than in control mothers (p = 0.004). The level of t-Hcy was not different in the two groups, but t-Hcy and vitamin B12 were correlated (p = 0.002). There was no difference in the genotype distribution for 677C>T and 1298A>C polymorphisms of MTHFR in the case and control pairs. The level of t-Hcy was correlated with 677TT. CONCLUSIONS Despite the small sample in this study, we suggest that low vitamin B12 and, consequently, hyperhomocysteinemia are important risk factors for NTDs in our population. Birth Defects Research (Part A), 2004. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] Maternal vitamin B-6 and folate status and risk of oral cleft birth defects in the PhilippinesBIRTH DEFECTS RESEARCH, Issue 7 2004Ronald G. Munger Abstract BACKGROUND Vitamin deficiencies induce oral clefts in animal experiments, but the role of specific nutrients in human oral clefts is uncertain. METHODS Associations between maternal vitamin B-6 and folate status and risk of nonsyndromic cleft lip, with or without cleft palate (CL/P), were examined in case,control studies at two sites in the Philippines,Negros Occidental and Davao. Cases were mothers of affected children and control mothers were those who had no children with oral clefts. RESULTS The risk of having a CL/P-affected child increased with increasing tertile of vitamin B-6 deficiency in both Negros Occidental and Davao (odds ratios [ORs] and 95% confidence intervals [CIs] for sites combined = 1.0 [reference], OR, 2.94; 95% CI, 1.51,5.73; OR, 4.98; 95% CI, 2.56,9.67). Poor B-6 status had a stronger association with CL/P among mothers with lower versus higher plasma folate levels. Increasing tertiles of plasma folate were marginally associated with an increased risk of clefts in both sites combined (1.0 [reference]; OR, 1.58; 95% CI, 0.93,2.68; OR, 1.59; 95% CI, 0.94,2.70). Increasing tertiles of erythrocyte folate were associated with a decreased risk of CL/P in Negros Occidental (1.0 [reference]; OR, 0.34; 95% CI, 0.13,0.90; OR, 0.46; 95% CI, 0.20,1.09) and an increased risk in Davao (1.0 [reference]; OR, 1.23; 95% CI, 0.54,2.81; OR, 4.85; 95% CI, 2.24,10.50). The inconsistent associations between folate status and CL/P risk appeared to be a result of statistical interaction between folate, vitamin B-6, and case,control status that produced different results in study areas of higher versus lower prevalence of vitamin B-6 deficiency. CONCLUSIONS Poor maternal vitamin B-6 status was consistently associated with an increased risk of CL/P at two sites in the Philippines. Folate-CL/P associations were inconsistent and may be related to the vitamin B-6 status or other characteristics of the populations under study. Birth Defects Research (Part A), 2004. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] Vasoactive exposures, vascular events, and hemifacial microsomiaBIRTH DEFECTS RESEARCH, Issue 6 2004Martha M. Werler Abstract BACKGROUND Based on experimental evidence and clinical observations, hemifacial microsomia (HFM) is one of several structural anomalies that are postulated to result from vascular disruption. We collected data in a case-control study to identify whether vasoactive exposures or vascular events during early pregnancy affect the risk of HFM. METHODS Cases with a diagnosis of HFM were identified at craniofacial centers in 26 cities across the United States and Canada, from 1996 to 2002. Controls were matched to cases by age and pediatrician practice. Mothers of 230 cases and 678 controls were interviewed about pregnancy events and exposures. Case and control mothers were compared for early pregnancy use of vasoactive medications, cigarettes, and alcohol; singleton or multiple gestation; and diabetes, hypertension, or vaginal bleeding in the first half of pregnancy. RESULTS Odds ratios (ORs) were significantly increased for vasoactive mediation use (OR, 1.9 overall; OR, 4.2 among smokers), multiple gestations (OR, 10.5), and diabetes (OR, 6.0). Vaginal bleeding in the second trimester and heavy alcohol intake were associated with increased risks, but the estimates were based on small numbers and, therefore, are unstable. No associations were observed for cigarette smoking without vasoactive medication use, hypertension, and vaginal bleeding in the first trimester. CONCLUSIONS The increased risks of HFM associated with vasoactive medication use, multiple gestations, diabetes, and second trimester vaginal bleeding appear collectively to support the hypothesis that vascular disruption is one etiology for HFM, because each of these factors is related to effects on blood vessels. Birth Defects Research (Part A), 2004. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] Parental lead exposure and total anomalous pulmonary venous returnBIRTH DEFECTS RESEARCH, Issue 4 2004Leila W. Jackson Abstract BACKGROUND Investigators from the Baltimore-Washington Infant Study (BWIS) reported an association between self-reported maternal lead exposure and total anomalous pulmonary venous return (TAPVR) in their offspring. This association was further evaluated in the BWIS population using a more sensitive exposure estimate. METHODS Cases included 54 live-born infants with TAPVR; controls were a stratified random sample of 522 live-born infants from the BWIS control group. Parental lead exposure was based on three assessment methods, including: an industrial hygiene assessment, an a priori job exposure matrix, and self-reported exposures. A parent was classified as exposed to lead if he/she was classified as exposed by any one of the assessment methods. RESULTS Approximately 17% of case mothers and 11% of control mothers were classified as exposed to lead during the three months prior to conception through the first trimester (odds ratio [OR], 1.57; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.64,3.47). Among fathers, 61% of case fathers and 46% of control fathers were classified as exposed to lead during the six months prior to conception (paternal critical period) (OR, 1.83; 95% CI, 1.00,3.42). During the paternal critical period, when only the father was exposed compared to neither parent exposed, the OR for any lead exposure and TAPVR was 1.65 (95% CI, 0.84,3.25). CONCLUSIONS This study supports a possible association between paternal lead exposure and TAPVR. Further studies are warranted using validated assessment methods for occupational and nonoccupational lead exposures to corroborate this association and to elucidate the possible biological mechanism. Birth Defects Research (Part A), 2004. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] Orofacial clefts and spina bifida: N -Acetyltransferase phenotype, maternal smoking, and medication useBIRTH DEFECTS RESEARCH, Issue 5 2002Iris A.L.M. Van Rooij Background Orofacial clefts and spina bifida are midline defects with a multifactorial etiology. Maternal smoking and medication use periconceptionally have been studied as risk factors for these malformations. The biotransformation enzyme N -acetyltransferase 2 (NAT2), plays a part in the inactivation of toxic compounds in cigarette smoke and medication. We investigated maternal NAT2 phenotype and the interaction with smoking and medication use periconceptionally on orofacial cleft and spina bifida risk in offspring. Methods In this case-control study of 45 mothers of orofacial cleft children, 39 mothers of spina bifida children and 73 control mothers, NAT2 acetylator status was determined by measuring urinary caffeine metabolites. Results Slow NAT2 acetylators showed no increased risk for orofacial cleft (OR = 1.0, 95% CI: 0.4,2.3) or spina bifida offspring (OR = 0.7, 95% CI: 0.3,1.7) compared to fast NAT2 acetylators. More mothers with orofacial cleft and spina bifida offspring smoked cigarettes (36% and 23% respectively) and used medication periconceptionally (38% and 44% respectively) compared to control mothers (smoking:18%, medication use:19%). No interaction between maternal NAT2 acetylator status and smoking or medication use was observed for orofacial cleft and spina bifida risk. Conclusions Maternal smoking and medication use is associated with orofacial cleft risk as well as medication use is with spina bifida. The maternal NAT2 acetylator status, however, was not associated with an increased risk for orofacial cleft or spina bifida offspring, nor in combination with periconceptional smoking or medication use. Teratology 66:260,266, 2002. © 2002 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] The maternal Mediterranean dietary pattern is associated with a reduced risk of spina bifida in the offspringBJOG : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF OBSTETRICS & GYNAECOLOGY, Issue 3 2009M Vujkovic Objective, The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis whether a maternal dietary pattern is associated with the risk of spina bifida (SB) in the offspring. Design, Case,control study. Setting, Eight clinic sites in the Netherlands, 1999,2001. Sample, A total of 50 mothers of children with SB and 81 control mothers. Methods, Maternal food intakes were obtained by food frequency questionnaires at the standardised study moment of 14 months after the birth of the index child. Principal component factor analysis (PCA) and reduced rank regression (RRR) were used to identify dietary patterns. Main outcome measures, Maternal biomarkers were used as response measures in the RRR analysis and composed of serum and red blood cell (RBC) folate, serum vitamin B12 and total plasma homocysteine. The strength of the use of the dietary pattern in association with SB risk was estimated by odds ratios and 95% CI with the highest quartiles of the dietary pattern as reference. Results, A predominantly Mediterranean dietary pattern was identified by both PCA and RRR. Those dietary patterns were highly correlated (r = 0.51, P < 0.001) and characterised by joint intakes of fruit, vegetables, vegetable oil, alcohol, fish, legumes and cereals and low intakes of potatoes and sweets. We observed a significantly increased risk of SB offspring in mothers with a weak use of the Mediterranean dietary pattern, OR 2.7 (95% CI 1.2,6.1) and OR 3.5 (95% CI 1.5,7.9). The Mediterranean dietary pattern was correlated with higher levels of serum and RBC folate, serum vitamin B12 and lower plasma homocysteine. Conclusion, The Mediterranean dietary pattern seems to be associated with reduction in the risk of offspring being affected by SB. [source] Crying and Infant Abuse in Rhesus MonkeysCHILD DEVELOPMENT, Issue 2 2000Dario Maestripieri This study investigated the relation between crying and infant abuse in group-living rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). The subjects were 10 abusive mothers with their infants and 10 control mother , infant pairs. Abused infants cried more frequently than controls in the first 12 weeks of life, even when cries immediately following abuse were excluded from the analysis. The coos of 5 abused infants differed from those of 5 controls in several acoustic parameters, whereas their screams and geckers were acoustically similar, when recorded in the same context. Abusive mothers were less likely than control mothers to respond positively to the cries of their infants. Although infant cries may increase the probability of abuse being repeated, infant crying per se does not appear to be a major determinant of abuse. [source] Child health services in transition: I. Theories, methods and launchingACTA PAEDIATRICA, Issue 3 2005C. SUNDELIN Abstract Aim: To describe an evidence-based model for preventive child health care and present some findings from baseline measurements. Methods: The model includes: parent education; methods for interaction and language training; follow-up of low birthweight children; identification and treatment of postnatal depression, interaction difficulties, motor problems, parenthood stress, and psychosocial problems. After baseline measurements at 18 mo (cohort I), the intervention was tested on children from 0 to 18 mo at 18 child health centres in Uppsala County (cohort II). Eighteen centres in other counties served as controls. Two centres from a privileged area were included in the baseline measurements as a "contrasting" sample. Data are derived from health records and questionnaires to nurses and mothers. Results: Baseline experiment (n= 457) and control mothers (n= 510) were largely comparable in a number of respects. Experiment parents were of higher educational and occupational status, and were more frequently of non-Nordic ethnicity. Mothers in the privileged area (n= 72) differed from other mothers in several respects. Experiment nurses devoted considerably fewer hours per week to child health services and to child patients than did control nurses. Conclusions : Despite certain differences, experiment and control samples appeared comparable enough to permit, in a second step, conclusions about the effectiveness of the intervention. [source] | |||||||||||||