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Biogeographical Regions (biogeographical + regions)
Selected AbstractsEcological niche partitioning in the picoplanktonic green alga Micromonas pusilla: evidence from environmental surveys using phylogenetic probesENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY, Issue 9 2008Elodie Foulon Summary Very few studies have analysed the niches of pelagic protist in details. This is because for most protists, both an accurate species definition and methods for routine detection and quantification of cells are lacking. The morphospecies Micromonas pusilla, a marine unicellular green alga, is the most ubiquitous and cosmopolitan picoeukaryote described to date. This species comprises several independent genetic lineages or clades, which are not currently distinguishable based on comparison of their morphology or biogeographical distribution. Molecular probes were used to detect and quantify the genetic clades of M. pusilla in samples from temperate, polar and tropical environments in order to assess potential ecological niche partitioning. The three clades were detected in all biogeographical regions studied and were commonly found in sympatry. Cell abundances recorded for clades A and B were high, especially at coastal stations. Clade C, when detected, was always at low abundances and is suggested to be a low-light clade. Shifts in the contribution of clades to total M. pusilla abundance were observed along environmental gradients, both at local and basin-wide scales. This suggests that the phylogenetic clades occupy specific niches and confirms the existence of cryptic species within the morphospecies M. pusilla. Parameters which can precisely explain the distribution of these cryptic species remain to be elucidated. [source] Assembly rules and functional groups at global biogeographical scalesFUNCTIONAL ECOLOGY, Issue 5 2002D. R. Bellwood Summary 1The taxonomic and functional composition of reef fish assemblages are quantified in three biogeographical regions: Great Barrier Reef, French Polynesia and Caribbean. Assemblages are described in three habitats of differing wave exposure. Functional abilities are estimated based on published analyses linking fin morphology and swimming performance. 2Two questions were addressed: (1) To what extent are labrid assemblages similar among habitats and regions? (2) To what extent are functional characteristics of fish assemblages shaped by differences in biodiversity, evolutionary history and species composition? 3All three regions display highly congruent patterns of habitat use, in terms of assemblage structure and functional characteristics, despite a five-fold difference in species richness, limited or no species overlap, and a 3·2-Myear history of isolation. Exposed reef crest assemblages were dominated by fishes with fins reflecting lift-based high-speed locomotion. In contrast to abundance-based patterns, species presence/absence data were uninformative. 4The relationship between swimming ability and habitat use reveals underlying assembly rules at a functional level, emphasizing the utility of functional attributes as a metric for comparing system-level properties in taxonomically distinct faunas. [source] Non-random patterns in the Yellowstone ecosystem: inferences from mammalian body size, order and biogeographical affinityGLOBAL ECOLOGY, Issue 2 2007Judsen E. Bruzgul ABSTRACT Aim, Our aim was to investigate how the environment, species characteristics and historical factors at the subcontinental scale affect patterns of diversity. We used the assembly of the Yellowstone biota over the past 10,000 years as a natural experiment for investigating the processes that generate a modern non-volant mammal species pool. Location, The data represent species from throughout North America with special attention to the non-volant mammals of Yellowstone National Park, USA. Methods, We used digitized range maps to determine biogeographical affinity for all non-volant mammals in the Rocky Mountains, Deserts and Great Plains biogeographical regions of North America. This biogeographical affinity, along with taxonomic order and body size class, was used to test whether non-random patterns exist in the assemblage of Yellowstone non-volant mammals. These characteristics were also used to investigate the strength of non-random processes, such as habitat or taxon filtering, on particular groups of species or individual species. Results, Our results indicated that the Yellowstone fauna is composed of a non-random subset of mammals from specific body size classes and with particular biogeographical affinities. Analyses by taxonomic order found significantly more Carnivora from the Rocky Mountains region and significantly fewer Rodentia from the Deserts region than expected from random assembly. Analyses using body size classes revealed deviations from expectations, including several significant differences between the frequency distribution of regional body sizes and the distribution of those species found within Yellowstone. Main conclusions, Our novel approach explores processes affecting species pool assembly in the Yellowstone region and elsewhere, and particularly identifies unique properties of species that may contribute to non-random assembly. Focusing on the mechanisms generating diversity, not just current diversity patterns, will assist the design of conservation strategies given future environmental change scenarios. [source] Biogeographical patterns of Chinese spiders (Arachnida: Araneae) based on a parsimony analysis of endemicityJOURNAL OF BIOGEOGRAPHY, Issue 7 2008Kaibaryer Meng Abstract Aim, The distributions of Chinese spiders are used to form biotic regions and to infer biogeographical patterns. Location, China. Methods, China was initially divided into 294 quadrats of 2° latitude by 2° longitude. The distributions of 958 species of spiders were summarized for each quadrat. Subsequently, these quadrats were pooled into 28 areas based on topographical characteristics and to a lesser extent on the distributions of spiders. Parsimony analysis of endemicity (PAE) was used to classify the 28 areas based on the shared distributional patterns of spiders. Results, China was found to have seven major biogeographical regions based on the distributional patterns of spiders: Western Northern region (clade B2: Tibetan Plateau and Inner Mongolia-Xinjiang subregions), Central Northern region (clade B3), Eastern Northern region (clade B4), Central region (clade C2), Eastern Southern region (clade C3), Western Southern region (clade C4), and Central Southern region (clade C5). Main conclusions, The distributional patterns of Chinese spiders correspond broadly to geological provinces. A comparison of the geological provinces and the distributional patterns of spiders reveals that the spiders occur south of the geological provinces. Furthermore, a general biogeographical classification with five natural areas is suggested as follows: Tibetan Plateau, Central Northern, Eastern Northern, Western Northern (excluding Tibetan Plateau), and Southern regions. [source] The first biogeographical mapJOURNAL OF BIOGEOGRAPHY, Issue 5 2006Malte C. Ebach Abstract Unbeknownst to many historians of biology, the first biogeographical map was published in the third edition of the Flore française by Lamarck and Candolle in 1805, the same year in which Humboldt's famous Essai sur la Geographie appeared. Lamarck and Candolle's map marks the beginning of a descriptive or classificatory biogeography focusing on the study of biota rather than on the distributional pathways of taxa. The map is relevant because it heralds the beginning of the creation of biogeographical maps popularized by zoogeographers in the mid- to late nineteenth century together with the study of biogeographical regions. [source] The other face of Lyell: historical biogeography in his Principles of geologyJOURNAL OF BIOGEOGRAPHY, Issue 4 2006A. Alfredo Bueno-Hernández Abstract Although some excellent articles about Lyell's work have been published, they do not explicitly deal with Lyell's biogeographical conceptions. The purpose of this paper is to analyse Lyell's biogeographical model in terms of its own internal structure. Lyell tried to explain the distribution of organisms by appealing to a real cause (climate). However, he was aware that environmental conditions were clearly insufficient to explain the existence of biogeographical regions. Lyell's adherence to ecological determinism generated strong tensions within his biogeographical model. He shifted from granting a secondary weight to dispersal to assigning it a major role. By doing so, Lyell was led into an evident contradiction. A permanent tension in Lyell's ideas was generated by the prevalent explanatory pattern of his time. The explanatory model based on laws did not produce satisfactory results in biology because it did not deal with historical processes. We may conclude that the knowledge of organic distribution interested Lyell as long as it could be explained by the uniformitarian principles of his geological system. The importance of the second volume of the Principles of geology lies in its ample and systematic argumentation about the geographical distribution of organisms. Lyell established, independently from any theory about organic change, the first version of dispersalist biogeography. [source] Zoogeography of the southern African ascidian faunaJOURNAL OF BIOGEOGRAPHY, Issue 12 2004Carmen Primo Abstract Aim, To describe the biogeography of the ascidian fauna of southern Africa, to compare the results obtained with those reported for other fauna and flora of the same region, and to speculate about the origin of ascidians in the region. Location, Southern Africa extending over 4000 km from Mossâmedes (15° S,12° E) to Inhaca Island (26°30, S,33° E), including Vema Seamount (31°40, S,8 °20, E), Amsterdam-Saint Paul Islands (38° S,77°30, E) and the Tristan-Gough Islands (38° S,12°20, W). Methods, We constructed a presence/absence matrix of 168 species for 26 biogeographical divisions, 21 classical biogeographical regions described by Briggs (Marine zoogeography, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1974) and five provinces within the southern African region. We considered the following limits and divisions into provinces for the southern African region: Namibia, Namaqua, Agulhas and Natal as proposed by Branch et al. (Two oceans. A guide to the marine life of southern Africa, David Philip Publishers, 1994), and the West Wind Drift Islands province (WWD) according to Briggs (Global biogeography, Elsevier Health Sciences, Amsterdam, 1995). To examine the biogeographical structure, species and divisions were classified using cluster analysis (based on UPGMA as the aggregation algorithm) with the Bray,Curtis index of similarity. This classification was combined with MDS ordination. Main conclusions, Four main groups were obtained from the analysis of affinities among species: (1) species present in the WWD, separated by a high percentage of endemisms and a low number of species with a southern African distribution. Moreover, in the light of the species distribution and the results of further analysis, which revealed that they are completely separated and not at all related to the southern African region, it appears that there are no close relationships among the different islands and seamounts of the West Wind Drift Island province. This province was therefore removed from the remaining analyses; (2) species with a wide distribution; (3) species of colder waters present in Namaqua and Agulhas provinces, a transitional temperate area in which gradual mixing and replacement of species negate previous hypotheses on the existence of a marked distributional break at Cape of Good Hope; (4) species of warmer waters related to Natal province. The classification into biogeographical components was dominated by the endemic (47%), Indo-Pacific (25%) and cosmopolitan (13%) components. The analysis of affinities among biogeographical areas separated Namibia from the rest of the southern African provinces and showed that it was related to some extent to the Antarctic region because of the cold-temperate character of the province and the low sampling effort; Namaqua, Agulhas and Natal were grouped together and found to be closely related to the Indo-West Pacific region. In general, our results were consistent with those obtained for other southern African marine invertebrates. The frequency distribution of solitary/colonial strategies among provinces confirmed the domination of colonial organisms in tropical regions and solitary organisms in colder regions. Finally, we speculate that the southern African ascidian fauna mainly comprises Indo-Pacific, Antarctic and eastern Atlantic ascidians. [source] Historical biogeography of scarabaeine dung beetlesJOURNAL OF BIOGEOGRAPHY, Issue 9 2002Adrian L. V. Davis Abstract Aim, (1) To review briefly global biogeographical patterns in dung beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae), a group whose evolutionary history has been dominated by ecological specialization to vertebrate dung in warmer climates. (2) To develop hypotheses accounting for the evolution of these patterns. Location, Six principal biogeographical regions: Palaearctic, Oriental, Afrotropical, Australasia, Neotropical, Nearctic and five outlying islands or island groups harbouring endemic genera: Caribbean, Madagascar, Mauritius, New Caledonia, New Zealand. Methods, Major patterns of tribal, generic and species distribution are investigated using cluster analysis, ordination, parsimony analysis of endemism and track analysis. Attempts are made to resolve biogeographical patterns with findings in the fields of plate tectonics, fossil and evolutionary history, plus phylogeny of both mammals and dung beetles. Results, Because of conflict between published findings, it is uncertain at what point in time density of dinosaur dung, mammal dung or both became sufficiently great to select for specialized habits in dung beetles. However, biogeographical evidence would suggest a Mesozoic origin followed by further taxonomic radiation during the Cenozoic, possibly in response to the increasing size and diversity of mammalian dung types in South America and Afro-Eurasia. Proportional generic distribution in fourteen tribes and subtribes showed four principal biogeographical patterns: (1) southerly biased Gondwanaland distribution, (2) Americas or (3) Madagascar endemism, and (4) northerly biased, Afro-Eurasian-centred distribution with limited numbers of genera also widespread in other regions. Proportional composition of faunas in eleven geographical regions indicated three principal distributional centres, East Gondwanaland fragments, Afro-Eurasia and the Americas. These patterns probably result from three principal long-term range expansion and vicariance events (Mesozoic: Gondwanaland interchange and fragmentation, Cenozoic: Afro-Eurasian/Nearctic interchange and the Great American interchange). It is suggested that old vicariance caused by the Mesozoic fragmentation of Gondwanaland leads to a high degree of regional endemism at generic or tribal level across one or more Gondwanaland tracks. In contrast, it is suggested that the more recent Cenozoic range expansions occurred primarily towards northern regions leading to endemism primarily at species level. These Cenozoic radiations were facilitated by the re-linking of continents, either because of tectonic plate movements (Africa to Eurasia in Miocene), climatically induced sea-level change (Afro-Eurasia to Nearctic in Miocene and Pleistocene), or similar coupled with orogenics (Nearctic to Neotropical in Pliocene). Speciation has followed vicariance either because of climatic change or physical barrier development. These recent range expansions probably occurred principally along an Afro-Eurasian land track to the Nearctic and Neotropical and an Americas land track northwards from the Neotropics to the Nearctic, with limited dispersal from Eurasia to Australia, probably across a sea barrier. This accounts for the overall, spatially constrained, biogeographical pattern comprising large numbers of species-poor genera endemic to a single biogeographical region and fewer more species-rich genera, many of which show wider biogeographical distributions. In most southerly regions (Australasia, Madagascar, Neotropical), faunal composition and generic endemism is primarily dominated by elements with Gondwanaland ancestry, which is consistent with the Gondwanaland origin claimed for Scarabaeinae. In Afro-Eurasia (Palaearctic, Oriental, Afrotropical), generic endemism of monophyletically derived Afro-Eurasian and widespread lineages is centred in the Afrotropical region and faunal composition is numerically dominated by Afro-Eurasian and widespread elements. In the Nearctic region, the fauna is jointly dominated by widespread elements, derived from Afro-Eurasia, and Gondwanaland and Americas elements derived from the Neotropical region. Main conclusions, Global biogeographical patterns in scarabaeine dung beetles primarily result from Mesozoic and Cenozoic range expansion events followed by vicariance, although recent dispersal to Australia may have occurred across sea barriers. Detailed phylogenetics research is required to provide data to support dispersal/vicariance hypotheses. [source] Out-of-Africa origin and dispersal-mediated diversification of the butterfly genus Junonia (Nymphalidae: Nymphalinae)JOURNAL OF EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY, Issue 6 2007U. KODANDARAMAIAH Abstract The relative importance of dispersal and vicariance in the diversification of taxa has been much debated. Within butterflies, a few studies published so far have demonstrated vicariant patterns at the global level. We studied the historical biogeography of the genus Junonia (Nymphalidae: Nymphalinae) at the intercontinental level based on a molecular phylogeny. The genus is distributed over all major biogeographical regions of the world except the Palaearctic. We found dispersal to be the dominant process in the diversification of the genus. The genus originated and started diversifying in Africa about 20 Ma and soon after dispersed into Asia possibly through the Arabian Peninsula. From Asia, there were dispersals into Africa and Australasia, all around 5 Ma. The origin of the New World species is ambiguous; the ancestral may have dispersed from Asia via the Beringian Strait or from Africa over the Atlantic, about 3 Ma. We found no evidence for vicariance at the intercontinental scale. We argue that dispersal is as important as vicariance, if not more, in the global diversification of butterflies. [source] BIOGEOGRAPHY OF MARINE RED ALGAE: MYTHS AND REALITIESJOURNAL OF PHYCOLOGY, Issue 2001Article first published online: 24 SEP 200 Hommersand, M. H. Department of Biology, Coker Hall, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3280 USA Theories about the geographical distribution of marine algae fall roughly into two categories: (1) a concept of biogeographical regions in which algal distribution is determined primarily by growth, reproductive and lethal temperature boundaries (Setchell, van den Hoek, Breeman, Lüning) and (2) an historical perspective in which distribution is determined primarily by patterns of dispersal and the establishment of barriers to dispersal (vicariance biogeography) (Svedelius, Garbary, Lindstrom, Hommersand). Setchell proposed the 5° isotherm rule in 1920, and in 1924 Svedelius advocated a worldwide distribution for tropical and subtropical groups followed by discontinuous distribution upon closure of the connection between the Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Sea and, later, between North and South America (Wegener's theory). Transarctic dispersal routes have received special attention in recent years (Lindstrom, Lüning, van Oppen, Olsen, Stam), as have special relationships between Australasia, South Africa and South America (Hommersand). Less well understood are the climatic changes that have taken place in the Cenozoic which are strategic to an understanding vicariant biogeography. The advent of molecular methods combined with the tools of phylogenetic systematics now make it possible to identify ancestral taxa, test the consistency of tree topologies, and calculate mean branch lengths between sister lineages diverging from an interior node of a tree. With such methods it may be possible to infer ancestral areas, identify dispersal pathways, determine the chronology of isolating events, assess the impact of multiple invasions, and generally relate dispersal and vicariance models to phylogenetic hypotheses for red, brown and green algal taxa. [source] Refugial isolation and secondary contact in the dyeing poison frog Dendrobates tinctoriusMOLECULAR ECOLOGY, Issue 14 2006BRICE P. NOONAN Abstract Recent palaeoclimactic research suggests that fluctuating environmental conditions throughout the Pleistocene of Amazonia occurred with previously unrecognized frequency. This has resulted in a theoretical shift from glacially influenced fluctuations to those driven by precessional rhythms. This theoretical revolution has a profound impact on expectations of biotic diversity within biogeographical regions that have long been based on the idea of large-scale landscape fragmentation associated with increased aridity and glacial cycles. Generally speaking, this shifts phylogeographical expectations from that of (i) large areas of sympatry of closely related (but not sister) species whose origins lie in separate refugia, and current distributions are the results of cyclic connectivity of those two refugia (refuge hypothesis), to that of (ii) fine scale genetic structure, often associated with elevation, and divergence well below expected speciation levels [disturbance,vicariance (DV) hypothesis]. To date there have been few tests of the expectations of the DV hypothesis based on empirical studies of Neotropical floral and faunal communities. Herein we examine phylogeographical structure of Dendrobates tinctorius, an amphibian species endemic to the uplands of the eastern Guiana Shield, based on sampling of 114 individuals from 24 localities. Phylogenetic, nested clade, and dispersal,vicariance (DIVA) analyses of cytochrome b sequence data reveal the presence of two mitochondrial lineages that are associated with previously identified western and eastern uplands of this area. The geographical distribution of mitochondrial haplotypes and the results of DIVA and coalescent analyses suggest that there has been extensive secondary contact between these lineages indicating a complex history of connectivity between these western and eastern highlands, supporting the predictions of the DV hypothesis. [source] Biogeology of Wallacea: geotectonic models, areas of endemism, and natural biogeographical unitsBIOLOGICAL JOURNAL OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY, Issue 1 2010BERNARD MICHAUX The concepts of biogeographical regions and areas of endemism are briefly reviewed prior to a discussion of what constitutes a natural biogeographical unit. It is concluded that a natural biogeographical unit comprises a group of endemic species that share a geological history. These natural biogeographical units are termed Wallacean biogeographical units in honour of the biogeographer A.R. Wallace. Models of the geological development of Indonesia and the Philippines are outlined. Areas of endemism within Wallacea are identified by distributional data, and their relationship to each other and to the adjacent continental regions are evaluated using molecular phylogenies from the literature. The boundaries of these areas of endemism are in broad agreement with earlier works, but it is argued that the Tanimbar Islands are biologically part of south Maluku, rather than the Lesser Sundas, and that Timor (plus Savu, Roti, Wetar, Damar, and Babar) and the western Lesser Sundas form areas of endemism in their own right. Wallacean biogeographical units within Wallacea are identified by congruence between areas of endemism and geological history. It is concluded that although Wallacea as a whole is not a natural biogeographical region, neither is it completely artificial as it is formed from a complex of predominantly Australasian exotic fragments linked by geological processes within a complex collision zone. The Philippines are argued to be an integral part of Wallacea, as originally intended. © 2010 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2010, 101, 193,212. [source] Dispersal history of a spider (Stegodyphus lineatus) across contiguous deserts: vicariance and range expansionBIOLOGICAL JOURNAL OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY, Issue 4 2005JES JOHANNESEN Israel marks a crossroads between three continents encompassing several phytogeographical and zoogeographical zones. In this complex area, the flow of species from different biogeographical regions creates opportunities to study how geographical division and colonization routes affect current distribution and structure of resident populations of organisms associated with desert and arid environments, habitats that may have persisted throughout Pleistocene glacial periods. The present paper analyses the population history of the spider Stegodyphus lineatus in the contiguous Negev and Judean deserts in Israel using allozyme and mtDNA variation. The distinct patterns of variation indicate that Judean and Negev populations are vicariant lineages. The residence time was longer in Judea, where populations were more polymorphic for mtDNA, showed isolation by distance and were less structured than in the Negev. The Negev population, possibly linked to other Mediterranean populations of S. lineatus, consisted of two subdivisions derived from a recent eastward expansion across the central Negev watershed. Despite differences in age and level of structure, all lineages show similar dispersal processes dominated by restricted gene flow. The distribution patterns of allozyme and mtDNA markers are unrelated to geographical patterns of precipitation and vegetation. Rather, they follow large-scale topographic features, namely the water divide between Mediterranean and Afro-Syrian rift drainages and between eastern and western Negev drainages. © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2005, 84, 739,754. [source] Fig-eating by vertebrate frugivores: a global reviewBIOLOGICAL REVIEWS, Issue 4 2001MIKE SHANAHAN ABSTRACT The consumption of figs (the fruit of Ficus spp.; Moraceae) by vertebrates is reviewed using data from the literature, unpublished accounts and new field data from Borneo and Hong Kong. Records of frugivory from over 75 countries are presented for 260 Ficus species (approximately 30% of described species). Explanations are presented for geographical and taxonomic gaps in the otherwise extensive literature. In addition to a small number of reptiles and fishes, 1274 bird and mammal species in 523 genera and 92 families are known to eat figs. In terms of the number of species and genera of fig-eaters and the number of fig species eaten we identify the avian families interacting most with Ficus to be Columbidae, Psittacidae, Pycnonotidae, Bucerotidae, Sturnidae and Lybiidae. Among mammals, the major fig-eating families are Pteropodidae, Cercopithecidae, Sciuridae, Phyllostomidae and Cebidae. We assess the role these and other frugivores play in Ficus seed dispersal and identify fig-specialists. In most, but not all, cases fig specialists provide effective seed dispersal services to the Ficus species on which they feed. The diversity of fig-eaters is explained with respect to fig design and nutrient content, phenology of fig ripening and the diversity of fig presentation. Whilst at a gross level there exists considerable overlap between birds, arboreal mammals and fruit bats with regard to the fig species they consume, closer analysis, based on evidence from across the tropics, suggests that discrete guilds of Ficus species differentially attract subsets of sympatric frugivore communities. This dispersal guild structure is determined by interspecific differences in fig design and presentation. Throughout our examination of the fig-frugivore interaction we consider phylogenetic factors and make comparisons between large-scale biogeographical regions. Our dataset supports previous claims that Ficus is the most important plant genus for tropical frugivores. We explore the concept of figs as keystone resources and suggest criteria for future investigations of their dietary importance. Finally, fully referenced lists of frugivores recorded at each Ficus species and of Ficus species in the diet of each frugivore are presented as online appendices. In situations where ecological information is incomplete or its retrieval is impractical, this valuable resource will assist conservationists in evaluating the role of figs or their frugivores in tropical forest sites. [source] Reconstructing the origins of praying mantises (Dictyoptera, Mantodea): the roles of Gondwanan vicariance and morphological convergenceCLADISTICS, Issue 5 2009Gavin J. Svenson A comprehensive taxonomic sampling of Mantodea (praying mantises), covering virtually all higher-level groups, was assembled to reconstruct the phylogeny of the order. Sequence data were generated from five mitochondrial and four nuclear loci (12S rRNA, 16S rRNA, 18S rRNA, 28S rRNA, Histone III, Cytochrome Oxidase I & II, NADH dehydrogenase subunit 4, and Wingless) for 329 mantis exemplars along with seven cockroach and eight termite species. Only seven of 14 families, 14 of 33 subfamilies, and seven of 14 tribes were recovered as monophyletic, indicating that phylogeny is largely incongruent with classification. Mapping biogeographical regions on the phylogeny demonstrated that our results adhere closer to biogeographical distributions than to classification. Specific patterns in distribution suggest that major morphological convergences have confounded taxonomists' ability to reconstruct natural groups. A major revision of higher-level relationships is in order through a comprehensive investigation of morphology and molecular data. We found that major mantis lineages diverged prior to and during the isolation of geographical regions and subsequent ecomorphic specializations within these regions may have led to convergences in morphology. Divergence time estimation places the origin of Mantodea at the beginning of the Jurassic with most modern mantises originating on Gondwana in the Cretaceous. The first major divergence among modern mantises occurred as a result of the north,south splitting of South America and Africa. Subsequent divergences resulted from the breakup of Gondwana. The position of the Indian subcontinent appears to be central to the diversification of Afrotropical and Indomalayan mantises while Antarctica may have served as the conduit for the mantis invasions into South America and Australasia. When India separated from Antarctica and drifted north it distributed mantis lineages back into the Afrotropics and carried a diverse taxonomic assemblage to Asia. [source] | ||||||||||||||||||||||